(24) Observations on the poetical use of OR and NCR.-The poets often employ or instead of EITHER, and NOR instead of NEITHER before the first of two alternative propositions.* OR is most frequently found employed instead of EITHER, and NOR instead of NEITHER in connecting complements. Examples:

"Whose greater power

Or bids you roar, or bids your roaring cease." "OR other worlds they seemed, OR happy isles."

"OR floating loose, or stiff with mazy gold."

In prose this would be expressed thus, EITHER bids you roar, or, &c. EITHER other worlds they seemed, or happy isles. EITHER floating loose, or stiff, &c.

"Nor wife, nor children more shall he behold,

Nor friends, nor sacred home."

In prose this would be expressed thus, NEITHER wife, NOR children, &c.

(25) In the poets NOR for and not, not only often follows an affirmative proposition, but commences a new sentence or section.

'NOR less the palm of peace inwreathes thy brow."
"NOR art thou skilled in awful schemes alone."
"NOR purpose gay,

Amusement, dance, or song, he sternly scorns."

"NOR less at hand the loosened tempest reigns."

In all these examples NOR commences a new sentence, as well as follows affirmative propositions.

Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day,
NOR cast one longing, lingering look behind?"

* This may perhaps be regarded as an imitation of the Latin usage. This language expresses emphatic alternative connection, by employing the same alternative conjunction before both propositions, or members of propositions or complements. We may remark that it also expresses emphatic simple connection or combination, by a similar repetition of the copulative. Thus, in Latin Vel-vel Either-or, Nec-nec Neither-nor, Et-et Both-and.

(24) Mention a usage of OR and NOR peculiar to the poets. Give examplos.
(25) Describe a poetical use of nor, and illustrate by examples.

Milton has employed NOR as equivalent to not even :
"For Heaven hides nothing from thy view,

NOR the deep tract of Hell."

(26) The same mode of punctuation is adopted generally in alternative connection of discourse as in simple connection. Propositions completely expressed are separated by a comma. When members

of propositions or complements take OR or NOR between them the comma is generally omitted; though in this matter usage is far from uniform, as will be seen in some of the examples above in which we have followed the punctuation of the copies from which we have quoted. When several co-ordinate complements or members of propositions are connected and the conjunction suppressed, a comma is always inserted. When alternative names are connected by or, the comma is usually interposed, as, Alexander, or Paris.

EXERCISES I., II., &c.-Furnish examples of propositions connected by OR and by EITHER-OR; of the members of propositions--subjects and predicates so connected; and of complements so connected.

(27) YET appears to be sometimes employed in connecting co-ordinate propositions either alone or in connection with and, but, nor, &c. We believe, that, generally, in such cases it indicates the suppression of a concessive proposition. (See §138: 5.) For example, "I have smitten thee with blasting and mildew, &c., YET have ye not returned unto me" And THOUGH I have done this, ye have not returned unto me.

A similar remark might, perhaps, be made in reference to the word still, when it apparently serves as the connective of co-ordinates. But most generally this latter when placed thus between co-ordinates modifies some word in the latter proposition.

(28) There are certain forms of expression employed to introduce explanatory matter, such as To WIT, VIDELICET, usually expressed in writing by the contraction viz.; and NAMELY. These may all be regarded as a species of conjunctive contracted propositions. In analysis they may be designated conjunctive phrases used to introduce an explanation or enumeration of particulars. They are equivalent to such propositions as the following; I state particulars to help you to know, or that you may see for yourself, I give you names, or the names are, or by name they are, or the like. To these we may add et cætera, commonly written, &c., which indicates the connection or addition of unnamed particulars similar to those just enumerated.

(26) Tell what is said of the interpunction of alternatives.

(27) What is said of the use of YET in connecting co-ordinate propositions?
(23) What is sald of TO WIT, VIDELICET, NAMELY, and &c. ?

§ 149. (1) We have already, in treating of simple propositions. given the rule of agreement, or of concord, as the grammarians call it, between verbs and subject nouns of the singular and plural forms and of different persons; namely that the verb and subject must be of the same number and person. (2) Some further rules of concord become necessary in certain cases of combined construction, when two or more subject nouns having common predicates are, for the sake of abbreviation, connected by conjunctions and the predicate expressed once for them all together. (3) When two or more subjects are embraced in this manner under one common predicate, they are generally such as are connected by the copulative AND or the alternatives OR or nor. (4) In rare cases, indeed, BUT is employed between two subjects, but then the verb manifestly applies only to the last subject, and is suppressed after the first. The same rule may be given for such cases of adversative construction as for alternative construction. The facts, so far as regards the form of the verb agree, though we should rather, in the cases of adversative connection, explain the construction, as we have just said, by saying that there is a suppression or ellipsis of the verb after the first subject. The following example will serve as a model of the kind of construction which we mean; Not interest, BUT duty HAS determined his choice.

Leaving out these rare cases of adversative construction to be treated as cases of the ellipsis or suppression of a verb, or, if the reader chooses, to be brought under the rule for alternative subjects, we proceed to lay down rules applying to the case of subjects united by the copulative and of subjects united by the alternative conjunction. (5) The subjects may be all singular, or second, they may be all plural, or third, they may be some singular, and some plural. (6) Omitting the case when all the subjects are plural, because this manifestly comes under Rule I., given in reference to the agreement of verbs and subjects in simple propositions, we have only to do with the cases where all the subjects are singular, or some singular and some plural. (7) These cases need not be considered distinctly in giving a rule for subjects connected by the copulative, as it

§ 149. (1) Repeat the reference to a rule of concord already given. (2) In reference to woat cases do farther rnles become necessary? (3) How are several subjects embraced under one assertion usually connected? (4) Tell what is said of constructions with but employed between two subjects. Give an example.

Enumerate three distinct cases of the combination of subjects. (6) Which of these cases may be left out of consideration, and why? (7) Is it necessary to consider these cases distinctly in giving a rule for the concord of verbs with subjects connected by the copula ave? Give a reason

makes no difference whether these subjects are all singular, or partly singular, partly plural. Two subjects, though both singular, wher coupled together and both embraced under the same assertion, form a plural and require a plural verb. This fact may be expressed thus as a rule of concord.

RULE IV.-(8) When an assertion is made by a single verb ir reference to two or more subjects conjointly, the plural form of the verb is employed; as, Integrity and industry DESERVE Success. Pride and poverty ARE ill assorted companions. (a)

This rule of course applies whether the copulative is employed or suppressed. Example of suppression :

"Love, wonder, joy alternately alarm."

(9) We need not give a rule in English for the case in which subjects connected by the copulative are of different persons, since the plural form of all our verbs is always the same for all three persons. (b)

EXERCISES I., II., &c.-The learner will furnish examples of propositions having a plurality of subjects in simple connection.

NOTE (a).—It is only when the assertion is made of the singular subjects conjointly that this rule applies. There are cases in which AND (as well as BUT) is employed between two subjects, and yet the assertion does not apply to both but only to one of the subjects. Thus, John, AND not James, is to blame.

Sometimes two nouns connected by the copulative, express but one single subject, in which case the verb is of the singular number; as, This great philosopher AND good man LIVES in poverty.

Similar to this is the case when an author employs two nouns of kindred meaning, to express more fully a single conception; as, "Their safety and welfare is most concerned."

Some writers seem to have initated the Latin and Greek authors, who often make the verb accord in number and person with the last subject, and leave it to be supplied with the others. We do not condemn this practice as inconsistent with any general fixed principle or law of language. If it were a usage universally adopted in such cases, to make the verb, when there are two or more subjects, agree invariably with the last, and leave it to the party addressed to supply it in its proper form with the rest, the grammarian would have no reason to object. But general good usage does not in our language sanction this mode of expression. The employment of the plural form of the verb, in all cases where the assertion embraces two

(8) Repeat RULE IV.

(9) Why is no rule necessary when the subjects are of different persons?

distinct subjects, is so completely established that every tyro in grammar is ready to detect and condemn as blunders all aberrations from this fixed usage. We recommend in such cases conformity to the general custom of the language. But when men of education have chosen, on some occasions, to adopt a mode of construction not uncommon in the most respectable Greek and Latin classics, we think it improper to regard such variations from the ordinary construction as blunders. The grammarian steps out of his place, as we have had occasion before to observe, when he attempts to legislate in regard of language. His business is to investigate and describe the usages of language, and to account for them, if he can; but not to dictate what they ought to be. He may with propriety distinguish anomalous and clumsy, or otherwise objectionable forms of expression, and caution the learner against imitating them, though they may be found in writers of the highest celebrity; but he ought not to stigmatize as blunders forms which have obtained the sanction of reputable usage.

Some examples may be found in respectable authors, of a singular noun connected with others by the preposition with taking the plural form of the verb; as if, for example, we were to say, John with his brothers ARE going to the country. We would not imitate this model of construction.

Tenses connected together should be all of the same form, whether simple, emphatic, or "progressive. Thus, The man EATS and DRINKS, or The man is EATING and (is) DRINKING. DOES he EAT and (does he) DRINK, or Is he eating and drinking. Verbs of different times, however, are often connected by the copulative in the same construction; John ARRIVED this morning, and WILL GO AWAY this evening. The tense to be used must be determined by the sense, and a knowledge of the functions which each tense performs; not by the connection.

NOTE (6).-In languages which have distinct forms for the several plural persons, the rule is the same as when individuals of different persons are united under the same plural pronoun. If one of two or more individuals performs the part of the first person, (namely, that of speaker,) the plural pronoun is the first person, and the plural verb is, of course, the same person. Again, if of two or more individuals one performs the part of the second person, (the party addressed,) and the rest the part of third persons, (that is, of parties only spoken of,) the plural pronoun is the second person, and the verb, of course, is of the same person. The pronouns and verbs are of the third person plural, when all the individual subjects represented by the pronouns are only spoken of-that is, in other words, when both the speaker and the party addressed are excluded.

RULE V.-(10) When two or more singular subjects are connected by the alternative conjunction OR, the verb employed is of

(10) Repeat RULE V.