proper, are usurped to name a class, they have plurals; as, The Cæsars, The Tudors, &c.

(20) Most abstract nouns are never used in the plural. Some of them are occasionally employed as names of classes of abstract attributes, and then assume a plural form, being used for the time in the same manner as common nouns; for example, we say the virtues of justice and benevolence. But this is a deviation from the specia! use of abstract nouns, which is to express an attribute regarded in all its universality as a single conception. When we speak of virtue, we mean the attribute virtuous in its whole extent, and this admits of no plural; but when we say the virtue of prudence, we imply that the conception of virtue admits of subdivision of parts, and consequently the name must admit a plural form. (See § 26.)

(21) The names of substances which are not divided into perceptible parts or portions, and of which, consequently, we cannot determine the quantity, by mere enumeration of these parts, but only by measure or weight, are seldom used in the plural form. (22) Such words as, butter, lard, pitch, wax, gold, silver, iron, &c., are for this reason never used in the plural form.*

(23) Several nouns having plural terminations are employed in the construction of propositions, sometimes with the singular, sometimes with the plural form of the verb. (24) The nouns, means, wages (see

* For the same reason assigned above, namely, that the quantity of the substances which they represent is always ascertained by weight, the nouns wool, tea, sugar, &c., are never used in the plural form, except when we speak of different sorts of these commodities. Thus, we speak of the wools of Spain, and the wools of Saxony; of green teas and black teas, &c. Many things, such as the large fruits, apples, pears, peaches, plums, though their quantity is generally ascertained by measure, present themselves in a form which suggests the ideas of unity and plurality. They are capable of being counted, and are, in fact, usually retailed by number. But the metals, and some other substances never present themselves in such a manner as to suggest the notion either of unity or plurality, except when formed into regular masses, or manufactured into useful or ornamental articles; and then these masses or manufactured articles are known by their own appropriate names; as ingots of gold, or silver, bars of iron, guincas, dollars, cups, goblets, &c., &c. ; so that a plural form of the name of the material is wholly unnecessary.

(20) Repeat what is said of abstract nouns in reference to this matter.

(21) Describe a class of names of substances used only in the singular. (22) Give ex amples.

(28) Repeat what is said of some nouns having plural terminations. (24) Give exam

Gen. 30: 28; Hag. 1: 6; Rom. 6: 23), amends, are of this class, with ethics, mathematics, physics, and many similar names of sciences. (25) News, though a plural form, is treated in construction as singular. (26) The noun pains, in the sense of trouble, labor, is employed in construction, sometimes as singular, sometimes as plural. (27) Modern usage inclines to the employment of this word exclusively as plural. (28) Riches, originally a singular noun (richesse) introduced from the French language, seems to have been taken by the uneducated for a plural, because it ends in an s sound, and hence it has come to be treated as a plural form in grammatical construction. (29) The word always takes plural verbs, and is represented by plural pronouns : "Riches certainly make themselves wings; they fly away," &c.

(30) The word alms is also originally a singular form. This word has come in the same way to be treated generally in the language of the present day as a plural. (31) It is (at least, sometimes) recognised as a singular form by older writers; for example, "Asked an alms.” (Acts 3: 3.)

EXERCISE I., II., &c.-Let the learner form propositions having for their subject a given number of the above exceptions to the general rule for the formation of plurals.]

ples. (25) What of the noun news? (26) What of pains, in the sense of trouble? (27) What is said of modern usage in this matter? (28) What is said of the word riches? (29) What form of verbs does it take, and what pronouns represent it? Give example.

(30) What is said of the word alms? (31) Has it ever been treated as singular? Ex

CHAPTER III.

OF THE VERB.

the verb to

§ 44. PRELIMINARY REMARK.-(1) It is the usual practice, both in Grammars and in Dictionaries, to employ the infinitive (the verbal noun with the prefix to, noticed in § 27) to designate any particular verb. (2) Thus, the word which asserts being is called be, the word which asserts writing the verb to write, &c. (3) It will be convenient in compliance with universal usage to retain this manner of indicating verbs; though apparently inconsistent with the definition of verbs which we have given, since the verbal with the prefix to is not assertive, and therefore not a verb, according to our definition. (4) The learner will therefore please remember that when we use this form of expression, the verb to write, the verb to think, &c., we do not mean that the words to write, to think, are themselves verbs, but to express concisely (what may be more fully expressed) the verb which asserts the action to write, or of writing— the verb which expresses the action to think, &c.

(5) We here repeat the definition of the verb which we have adopted: viz., THE VERB IS THAT WORD IN A PROPOSITION WHICH EXPRESSES ASSERTION. As we arrange in the class of verbs all the words and only the words which perform the peculiar and readily recognised function of asserting, the learner, after a little practice, can find no difficulty in distinguishing them.

CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS IN REFERENCE TO THEIR MEANING.(6) The first striking distinction, in reference to meaning which arrests our attention, is that between verbs, which express alone a complete predicate-form a full rational assertion respecting the

§ 44. (1) How are particular verbs designated in grammars and dictionaries? (2) Ilustrate by an example. (3) What is said of the practice of indicating verbs in this man. ner? (4) Repeat the caution given to the learner.

(5) Repeat the definition of a verb and the remark which follows.

(6) Mention a striking distinction among verbs in reference to their meaning. (7) Illus

subject of the proposition-and, those which do not express a predi cate without the help of other words to complete them. (7) For example, the verbs grow and sleep express a complete predicate-a complete assertion. Uniting the subject nouns, CORN and BOYS, with the verbs GROWS and SLEEP respectively, we form two complete propositions containing rational assertions; CORN GROWS; BOYS SLEEP. But such verbs as MAKE and GIVE will not form complete predicates, or complete assertions. If I say MEN MAKE, or MEN GIVE, I express no complete sense. Some completing word must be placed after them in order to form a proposition; as, The man makes ploughs; the man gives lessons, &c. (8) Regarded in this point of view, verbs might be divided into complete or perfect verbs, and incomplete or imperfect verbs.

Perhaps the most complete classification of verbs founded on their meaning (as distinct from their form), and having reference to constructional arrangements, would be one which should distribute them according to the forms of the complements or modifications of which they are susceptible. Following this method, we should have a class of verbs which, without any complement or modification, express a rational predicate, a class of verbs which require a complement indicating a passive or suffering object, a class of verbs which require complements, indicating both a passive and a personal object, a class of verbs which take a passive and a factitive object to complete them, a class of verbs which require an adverb, &c. Such a classification would lead to details unsuited to the present stage of our progress in grammatical analysis. All the useful purposes which it could effect will be effected, whilst we examine and discuss hereafter the several complements of verbs. When our discussion is completed, a classification founded on this principle can, if requisite, be more readily made, and more easily comprehended by the learner.

But though the division of verbs into complete and incomplete verbs, subdividing the incomplete into classes in reference to the forms of complements necessary to constitute them rational predicates, is perhaps the most philosophical, we defer (for the reasons assigned) introducing it for the present, (9) and confine ourselves to the old and generally received classification, which is exclusively used in all our dictionaries as well as grammars, and for this reason claims the

trate this distinction by examples. (8) Into what classes might verbs be divided in refer ence to this fact?

attention of the learner. (9) It claims attention also as preparatory to the explanation of what is called the passive voice of verbs.

§ 45. (1) This classification divides verbs (on the principle of their requiring or not requiring one particular form of complement) into intransitive and transitive, or, to use the more ancient names, neuter verbs and active verbs. (2) The distinction between these two classes is this, in what are called intransitive or neuter verbs, that which is asserted or predicated terminates in the subject of the assertion-affects only the subject. (3) Thus, when we say, " Corn grows," we predicate the action of growing of the subject corn, as terminating in the corn. The act of growing is not such as affects directly any other object beyond the subject of which it is asserted. (4) Hence, this class of verbs has been appropriately called, by some modern grammarians, subjective verbs, as the action which they express terminates in the subject.

(5) On the contrary, the transitive or active verbs express an action which does not terminate in the subject, but passes over on some other object either expressed or implied in the proposition. (6) Thus in the example used above, "the man makes a table," the action of making passes over upon the object made—“ the table,” which undergoes or suffers the action. (7) The object which undergoes the action expressed by the verb is called, to distinguish it from other objects of the verb's action, the suffering or passive object. (8) From the fact that the action of these verbs passes over, they have been called transitive verbs. Transitive means that passes over. (The reason for which they have been called active verbs is to be explained presently.) (9) These verbs have also been appropriately named objective verbs, because the action which they express · has always reference to some object external to the subject, and a word expressive of this object is necessary to complete them-that

(9) What reasons are assigned for giving attention to the old classification?

§ 45. (1) Give the names of the two divisions of verbs according to this classification. (2) State the peculiarities which distinguish neuter or intransitive verbs. (3) Illustrate by examples. (4) By what name have these neuter verbs been appropriately called by some modern grammarians?

(5) Describe the active or transitive verbs. (6) Illustrate by example. (7) What name is given to the object which undergoes the action of the verb? (8) What does the term transitive mean, What other name has and why is it applied to this class of verbs? (9)