ing object, the subject noun of the proposition. (6) Thus, using the active form, we say, The carpenter MAKES a table, and, using the passive form, A table IS MADE by the carpenter. (7) This passive form of the verb is convenient when, as often happens, we wish to express that some person or thing suffers, or undergoes an action performed by an agent unknown to us, and we cannot, therefore, supply a definite subject for the proposition expressed actively. (8) For example, we can say, The man is killed, without knowing who has killed him; The house was set on fire, without knowing the incendiary, whose name would serve as the definite subject of the proposition made with the verb in the active form. (9) We have other means, it is true, of expressing the same fact by an active form. (10) We can assume an indefinite subject, such as is expressed by the indefinite words, somebody, something, and say, Somebody killed the man, Somebody or something set the house on fire. This form of expression is preferred in some languages. (11) But the passive form is not only often the most convenient in such cases as now lescribed, but also sometimes useful for the purpose of securing greater variety and greater smoothness of expression.

EXERCISES.-REMARK.-In the following exercises, the learner may be allowed to modify his subject noun by a determinative such as a, an, the, this, that, one, and these, those, two, three, &c., with plural nouns; or by any descriptive adjective, such as good, bad, faithful, &c. After the verb to be he may use any adjective, and after the active verb any noun necessary to complete its meaning, and after the passive form of the verb, the noun which serves as subject of the active form with the word by before it. The liberty of using these modifications will facilitate his task in forming propositions. These modifications will all be explained afterwards in their proper places. In the mean time, they cannot perplex the pupil who knows English. Use the word is in forming the passive when the subject noun is singular, and are when the subject noun is plural.

EXERCISE I.—Change the following propositions into propositions expressing the same meaning, and having verbs of the passive form.

we employ the passive form? (6) Illustrate by an example. (7) When is the use of this form convenient? (S) Illustrate by an example. (9) Can we effect the same purpose by an active form? (10) Describe the way of employing an active form? (11) For what other purposes is the passive voice convenient?

John writes a letter. Somebody strikes William. James sends a message. The servant kindles a fire. The soldiers plunder the country. the army vanquishes the enemy. He praises good men. He loves good boys. John detests dishonest practices. That man assists worthy persons. That man keeps three horses. Vice produces immense suffering.

EXERCISES II. III., &c.-Write ten propositions, each expressed both actively and passively. Model: John keeps a gardener. A gardener is kept by John. We give the perfect participles of the verbs used above. These participles are to be used in the formation of the passive. Write, written; strike, struck; send, sent; keep, kept. The rest all end in ed. See list of those which do not end in ed, § 67.

[(12) We may here observe that it is to the existence of a passive form of the verb in the Greek and Latin languages-a form constituted, to some extent, of the root of the verb modified by flexion without the aid, as in our language, of an additional wordthat we owe the origin of the terms active, passive, and neuter, applied to verbs. (13) The transitive verbs were susceptible both of an active form and a passive form; that is, a form in which the subject of the proposition is the actor or agent, and a form in which the subject represents the recipient of the action, and is passive. (14) These verbs, when used in the one form, were called by the ancient grammarians active, and when used in the other form, passive. (15) Or one form of the transitive verb was called by them the active voice, the other form the passive voice of the verb. (16) All active verbs, and none but active verbs, according to this classification, are susceptible of a passive use and passive form. (17) All other verbs, not admitting of a passive object, and, consequently, not of a passive voice, they called neuter verbs; that is (for neuter means neither), neither active nor passive verbs. (18) The subject of these verbs is by them neither asserted to act on an object distinct from itself, nor to be the passive recipient of an action.]

NOTE.-The foregoing remarks are the more necessary, because some modern grammarians seem to have misunderstood the principle

[(12) To what do we owe the origin of the terms active, passive, and neuter? (13) Of what two forms are transitive verbs susceptible? (14) How are they called when used in the one form, and how when used in the other? (15) Express this otherwise. (16) What verbs alone are susceptible of a passive form? (17) What are all other verbs called, and what does the name by which they are called mean? (18) What is said of the subject of neuter verbs?]

on which the ancient division is founded. They have, in consequence of this misunderstanding, in some cases suggested, in some cases adopted, a classification of verbs into "active transitive, active intransitive, passive and neuter;" not observing that the term active is used by the ancient grammarians to indicate the same thing which is now indicated by transitive, and that, with the sense which the word active assumes in the old grammars, an active intransitive verb is an absurdity, and active transitive a useless repetition of equivalent

terms.

The ancient classification is (properly) founded on the basis of a distinction in the grammatical susceptibilities of verbs; but the division into active transitive, active intransitive, &c., is founded on two bases--the grammatical susceptibilities of verbs, and their meaning as signs of thought. Verbs are called active from their meaning, their significance, and transitive or intransitive from the fact that they are susceptible, or, on the contrary, not susceptible of being modified by a passive object. A classification of this kind is illogical, and serves only to create confusion of thought, and difficulty and embarrassment to the learner.

Were it not that many of our dictionaries retain the old names, active and neuter, we should feel disposed to discard these names altogether, and employ exclusively the more significant and less objectionable names, transitive and intransitive, now generally used by grammarians. But, whilst, in most dictionaries, the old names active and neuter are still used to designate this division of the verbs, and, in some more recent dictionaries, the terms transitive and intransitive are employed for the same purpose, it is necessary for the guidance of the learner in consulting dictionaries, that these two sets of terms should be familiar to him, and that he should remember that though the names are different, the classification designated by them is the

same.

§ 48. TENSES OF VERBS.—(1) The most important modification of form which verbs undergo in our language is that employed to indicate the different times, to which an assertion has reference.

(2) These forms are called the TENSES of the verb. (3) The term tense is derived from the French language, in which it is the word to express time.

*The Latin word tempus used to express this same modification of verbs

§ 48. (1) What is the most important modification of the form of verbs? (2) What name is given to this modification? (3) Tell the derivation of the term tense.

SUPPOSED HISTORY OF THE FORMATION OF TENSES IN THE NORTHERN

DIALECTS.

The following remarks in reference to the history of the formation of tenses, especially in the Teutonic family of languages, may interest the inquisitive student of English Grammar:

We may conceive the history of the formation of tenses to be this. First, the verb in its primary form (the root) was employed to make all kinds of assertions, whether in reference to the present, past, or future; that is, it was employed altogether indefinitely as regards time. But as past transactions (past events) form a large class of the subjects about which men have occasion to speak, it would be found convenient to have a form specially appropriated to this purpose, leaving all assertions about all other except past occurrences, to be expressed by the ancient indefinite form. As mankind generally, and especially in a rude age, do not make the future so much the theme of conversation as the past, which embraces all that traditionary and legendary lore which forms the whole literature of rude nations, a future tense would be a later invention. In fact, the ancient Teutonic dialects appear never to have arrived at this stage of progress. They had no future tense. The modern languages founded on these dialects have supplied this defect, though generally in a somewhat clumsy and awkward manner.

The first step towards a tense in the ancient Teutonic tongues, seems to have been to modify the vowel sound of the original verb, when the assertion had reference to a past event. Afterwards, they began to express the same distinction by an addition to the root-by what is called inflexion. This addition likely in the first instance, consisted of some significant word appended to the root. But this in time came to be so incorporated with the root, as to form with it a single word. In this state, we find the Anglo-Saxon, at the period when the old English begins to be formed from it. It possesses only one tense distinct from the original verb, formed in the words in most common use, and likely of most ancient origin, by a modification of the vowel sound of the root, and in the rest, by a termination. Besides this it possessed means less or more complete of distinguishing the conjunctive from the independent use of both these tenses, or what is called the subjunctive from the indicative mode. Our future

in that language, and from which the French temps, English tense, is derived also signifies time.

tense and all the other compound tense forms, whether expressive of time, or of the condition of the action, or of both, are the fruits of the (rather bungling) efforts of an age posterior to the Anglo-Saxon period, to express what is generally expressed in the languages ancient and modern of the South of Europe, by a complicated system of inflexions.

These historical remarks throw light upon several grammatical peculiarities. For example, the use of the indefinite tense on some occasions, and especially in colloquial forms of expression in speaking of what is past and future; as, when we say, Plato writes beautifully, or reasons well, &c., and, I go to the country to-morrow. Such forms of expression will not surprise us, when we remember, that the form of the verb here employed was anciently used for assertions relating to all times, and till a comparatively recent period, always used to express the future. The more recent forms appropriated to express past time and future time, can in such instances be dispensed with, as the distinction of time is either not important to be considered, or suf ficiently indicated by the sense, if not by the accompanying modifying words.

[(4) In most languages, by what are called the tenses of verbs, more than mere time is indicated. (5) If time alone were indicated, we could have only four modifications at the most, viz., one to indicate that the assertion is made without reference to time, a second to indicate present time, a third to indicate past time, and a fourth to indicate future time (that is time to come).

(6) For verbs by means of the forms called tenses do not generally indicate time more definitely than this. (7) When greater precision in indicating time is required, recourse is had to additional modifying words expressive of the definite time intended. (8) Many languages have not forms of verbs sufficient to indicate distinctly the three grand divisions of present, past, and future time. (9) And most languages have no separate form to be used when there is no reference to time intended. (10) They employ for this purpose the same form by which present time is expressed. (11)

[(4) Is more than mere time indicated by tense forms? (5) If time alone were indicated, how many tenses should we have? (6) State the reason assigned. (7) How do we indicato time with greater precision? (8) Have all languages forms sufficient to distinguish present, past, and future? (9) Have languages generally a distinct form to use when there is no reference to time? (10) What form usually serves this purpose? (11) If time alone