When the pressure decreased in 1957 not only were fewer women working in agriculture but less was demanded of each woman. Therefore, a much greater flexibility was found in the 1957 version of the national program for agriculture where women were required to accomplish 80 to 180 days a year of productive work.228

In suburban areas in order to release more men for industrial work women cooperative members were told to strive to constitute 90 percent of the labor power in APC's within 2 years.229 Suburban APC's specializing in production for urban areas in growing more vegetables, some of it in hothouses, and breeding fish and poultry demanded more labor days put in per year than rural APC's. This demand weighed heavily on women, not only because of more labor intensive crops but also because the men were to be released for industrial work.

Earlier it was mentioned that women as a group were left in the most primitive and unproductive sectors of the economy during the period of industrialization. This pattern was intensified here because of the greater opportunities for men to leave agriculture for more productive work in urban areas than in rural APC's. For this reason it can be expected that the proportion of women of all persons working in agriculture and also the number of work days demanded of them will be higher in suburban than in rural areas. In connection with the long-term agricultural planning in Shensi Province the Provincial Women's Federation drew up a plan for women's work. For a start women were to work not less than 120 days a year in agriculture. In 7 years time they would be expected to be working at least 180 days annually. Finally in 12 years time they would be working not less than 200 work days a year.230 In Kwangsi Province women were told to work 250 man-days a year in agriculture in APC's.231

In Honan Province in 1956 about 10 percent of the village women did not take part in field work. At a conference August 29 to September 4, 1956, discussing problems of rural women and outside work arranged by the Honan Women's Federation the results of an investigation were disclosed showing that 50 to 60 percent of the village women in the economic crops districts worked 120 days, in grainproducing areas 100 days, in mountain areas not less than 100 days.232 A provincial plan was mapped out for 1957 asking that each woman work 150 days, and in cotton and tobacco-producing areas not less than 200 days. In some districts women had even been told to put in 300 work days.233

In the article it was said that the investigation was carried out in the year 1957, apparently given in error as the article was dated September 1956. This was the time when the draft of "the National Program for

228 Communist China 1955-59, Policy Documents with Analysis," Harvard University Press, 1962, p. 119. 229 Excerpt from the speech of the Chairman of the Municipal Women's Federation in Shenyang, "Shoulder the task of socialist construction," Shen-yang jih-pao (Shenyang Daily), 1956.4.13, Hou Chih, on the Second Women's Congress.

230 Shensi Provincial Democratic Women's Federation "Determine a long-term plan for the work for women of the whole province." Shen-si jih-pao (Shensi Daily), 1956.4.15.

231 Speech to the 2d plenary session of the 1st Kwangsi Provincial Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, "Women's role in construction in Kwangsi." Kuang-hsi jih-pao (Kwangsi Daily), 1956.4.28.

233 The Provincial Women's Federation calls a conference to discuss the problems of women having jobs. "Manage well household work, practice equal work, equal pay. Let women join agricultural production enthusiatically and happily," Ho-nan jih-pao (Honan Daily), 1956.9.9.

233 Ibid.

Agriculture 1956-67" was discussed and in that connection in this article a provincial plan was put forward by the Women's Federation to increase women's work participation rate during the same period. According to a report by the Honan Statistical Bureau in 1958 a survey of 31 hsien and municipalities and 1,951 APC's revealed that the female labor force worked on an average of 126 days in 1957.234 Examples were given both of how cooperativization in agriculture increased the number of work days performed by women, and of excessive demands on women's work participation. A survey published in English reported on one county in Hopei Province where the average able-bodied women worked 30 days and able-bodied men 110 to 120 days annually before cooperativization. After it, women in the lower APC's accomplished 70 to 80 days and men 170 to 180 days. Finally in the higher APC's women performed 230 days of work and men put in 270 days.235

These claims are in contrast to examples given earlier in an editorial in Chinese in the leading national daily of the difficulties encountered in raising the number of work-days for women in the APC's:

In Kiangsu Province, Tung Shan county, the Sha Kuang agricultural cooperative decided that full-time able-bodied female laborers should have 270 working days a year, while half-time able-bodied female laborers should have 131 days. But in reality able-bodied women working full-time worked only 170 days while those on half-time put in 60 days. So the requirements were clearly too high.236

In analogy with table 7 (see above preceding section) a higher proportion of men than of women worked in agriculture and a greater proportion of the men could be labeled full-time laborers. According to one investigation of 228 APC's in 1957 women on the average worked 105 days that year while men put in 204 days.237 Of all those working in the APC's the smallest group of men were among those who worked least, less than 50 days in 1957, while exactly the reverse situation prevailed among the women. Their smallest group was among those who worked most, more than 201 days in 1957. Almost twothirds of the male labor power worked more than half the year as compared with one-fifth of the female labor force (see table 9 below).

TABLE 9.-NUMBER OF WORKDAYS PERFORMED BY WOMEN AND MEN IN 228 APC's IN 1957

Source: "Income and distribution of APC's in 1957," T'ung-chi Yen-chiu (Statistical Research), 1958.8.23, in URS, vol. 13, No. 1, 1958.10.3.

Regional differences, mentioned several times earlier, still persisted with more women working in the South. The difference in the number of workdays was more pronounced among women than among men [see table 10 below].

234 Report by the Honan Statistical Bureau, "Women are a strong force in socalist construction," Ho-nan jih-pao (Honan Daily) 1958.3.8., in Weekly Report, Sum 1916, p. 12.

235Ending rural unemployment," by Cheng Lin-kuan and Lin Tsung-ho, "People's China", 1956.12.16. 236 Editorial, "Protect the health of rural women and children," JMJP, 1956.5.16.

237 See source for table 9.

TABLE 10.-PROPORTION OF WORKDAYS IN PRODUCTION PERFORMED BY WOMEN AND MEN IN THE MAIN GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS OF CHINA IN 1957

The Northeast region required the least workdays in agriculture while the Southern region demanded the most. The difference was also greatest between women's and men's labor input between these two regions. Women only put in one-third of men's labor in the Northeast region in comparison to almost two-thirds in the Southern region. Hence both women made up a higher proportion of the labor power and their labor input was higher in the South than in the North of China. In Northwest and Northeast China women made up a smaller proportion of the labor force and performed less workdays during 1957 than in any of the other areas in China. A positive correlation is thus established between proportion of women working and the amount of time they work in agriculture. More women work in the South than in the North and they also devote more time to agricultural work. This refutes the claims made for an exceptionally high rate of women's participation for the period 1949-52 for Northeast China (see table 4). In table 11 (below) a compilation has been made over workdays per year performed by women and men of the agricultural population.

Northwest China and Inner Mongolia.

All China

NOTES TO TABLE 11

1954 (I)-Half-year: "The women's movement in New China," speech by Teng Ying-ch'ao, October 1951, published by the ACDWF in English in 1952.

(II)—one fifth to one third of all workdays. Chang Yun, Vice-Chairman ACDWF, "Constructively direct village women to take part in agricultural mutual aid cooperative movement," CKFN, No. 3, 1954.

1956-"Women of the whole country realize 'The draft for the whole country's agricultural development from 1956 to 1967'," JMJP, 1956.3.9.

1957 (I)-80-180: “Communist China 1955-1959, Policy Documents with Analysis,' "Harvard University Press, 1962, p. 119.

(II)-105 (204): "Income and distribution of APC's in 1957," T'ung-chi yenchiu (Statistical Research), 1958.8.23, in URS, Vol. 13, No. 1, 1958.10.3.

(III)-166 (249): "People's communes are very good as an organization form for women's complete liberation." In commemorating the 50th anniversary of 8th of March International Working Women's Day. Hung ch'i correspondent, Hung Ch'i (Red Flag), No. 5, 1960.3.1.

1958-"Further emancipate female labor power, serve socialism in a greater, faster, better and more economical way", CKFN, 1958.7.1.

1961-Editorial, "Women make greater contributions to win a bumper harvest of crops this year", JMJP, 1961.3.8. The article says that village women should be given 6-8 days of rest every month which would mean 269-293 workdays in a year.

Northwest China and Inner Mongolia; Central China; and South China

Source: See All China 1957, II.

Peking suburban area

Interview by Peter Nan Shou-Lee, in Peking suburban commune, 1972.9.24. Shensi

1956 Shensi Provincial Democratic Women's Federation, "Determine a longterm plan for the work for women of the whole province", Shen-hsi jih-pao (Shensi Daily), 1956.4.15.

1961-Ibid.

1967-Ibid.

Honan

1956-The Honan Provincial Women's Federation calls a conference to discuss the problems of women having jobs. Manage well household work, practice equal work equal pay. Let women join agricultural production enthusiastically and happily", Ho-nan jih-pao (Honan Daily), 1956.9.9.

1957 (I)—150–200 (ibid).

(II)-126: Report by the Honan Statistical Bureau, "Women are a strong force in socialist construction," in Ho-nan jih-pao (Honan Daily), 1958.3.8., in Weekly Report, Sum. 1916, p. 12.

Kiangsu

1972-Investigation report from Kiangsu, Ch'i tung hsien, Lüszu commune, No. 10 production brigade, "Bring into fuller play the role of women as a labor force", Hung ch'i (Red Flag), No. 3, 1973.3.3.3., p. 43 ff.

Szechwan

"Working days of rural Szechwan women will in 3 years surpass the target set for the 7th year of the National Program for Agriculture", NCNA-English, 1956.3.9.

1956-Editorial, "Protect the health of rural women and children", JMJP,

1956.5.16.

Kiangsi

1955-A speech by the Chairman of the Kiangsu Democratic Women's Federation, Yang Tsu-hsing, "Actively mobilize women to join agricultural production", Hsin-hua jih-pao (New China Daily), Nanking, 1956.1.26.

1961-"Production team's arrangements of labor for collective production and housework cited", JMJP, 1962.5.29. in CCD No. 69, p. 16.