with other families. A man will sell or exchange products with members of another group; or he will make friends and perhaps marry outside his own circle. These groups of families will then bind themselves together for mutual aid and benefit. These groups of people are what we call societies, and since societies are also dependent on each other, they combine in large groups, forming barrios, municipalities, provinces, and governments. 5. Government.-The word "government" comes from the Latin gubernaculum, a rudder; gubernare, to Government, therefore, is the rudder which steers the ship of state; in other words, it is the agency which controls a society. steer. Government differs from the nation and from the state. The nation is the race or people inhabiting a country. The state is the political unit, including all the individuals of a nation and representing them as if they were one person. The government is the agent of the state; that is, it expresses the will and administers the law of the state. In the Philippines, there is a government, and the Filipino people is a nation. 6. Kinds of Government.-In countries where the government is in the hands of a military power, a military government exists. Where the church or the religious authorities control the government there is church government. Since in the Philippines, as in the United States and in other advanced countries, church and state are separate, we are not concerned with church govern ment. In our country the government is directed by the citizens and is therefore called a civil government. Aristotle, the famous Greek philosopher, classified states and governments according to the seat of supreme power. Thus, monarchy is the rule of one person, called a king, emperor, etc. This form existed in Spain while Spain ruled the Philippines. Aristocracy is the rule of a few powerful men. This form existed in the Philip pines in the pre-Spanish period. Democracy is the rule of many. As Abraham Lincoln said, it is a “government of the people, by the people, and for the people." Democracy is the present form of the Philippine Govern ment. Since it is impossible for all the people of a large country to gather to make laws, there are representative democracies-republics. In a republic, the majority rules, although, of course, the minority has rights which should be respected. A republic has a constitution (a fundamental law) and the people are represented in the government by individuals whom they elect. The United States Vis is the best example of republican government. 7. Development of Philippine Government.—The history of the Philippines is divided into three great epochs. The first epoch we call pre-Spanish. The Malays (Filipinos and Moros) had then been in the Islands for a long time and had, by forcing the Negritos to the hills, established many little governments called "barangays" (barrios). The inhabitants then possessed considerable culture. They had passed from the last stages of barbarism into the first stages of civilization. The second epoch is the era of Spanish rule extending from the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in March, 1521, to the capture of Manila by the American army on August 13, 1898. The Governor-General represented the Spanish Crown in the Philippines and had vast powers. The Filipinos had little part in the government. Yet, under the Spanish rule, the people advanced in civilization. The third epoch is a combination of American and Filipino administration and coöperation. The American policy has been to permit the Filipinos to advance step by step until now there is Filipino self-government. The next epoch will be that of the Philippine Republic, toward which the government is now moving. The Government of the Philippine Islands is the correct title of the government existing in the Philippines. The short form is Philippine Government. 8. Civic Virtues. All persons in the Philippines enjoy many privileges. Every privilege, however, has a corresponding duty. There are many of these civic duties or virtues : Obedience! Obey your father and your mother, your teacher, your public officials. Obey the law. Cleanliness! To be neat and clean is necessary for the maintenance of health. It also is a sign of refinement. Orderliness! It is necessary to plan one's work carefully and to have a place for everything. In this way no time is wasted. Courtesy! Respect for one's elders, one's superiors, and, in fact, proper regard for every one, is a praiseworthy quality, especially in young people. Some examples of politeness which every pupil should follow are assistance to the aged and the sick, the lifting of the hat by the young man when he meets his teacher, and showing every possible courtesy to ladies. Helpfulness! To do something for another person should give more pleasure than to obtain the highest office. Unselfishness, even at a personal sacrifice, is a moral duty. Punctuality! If a person be always on time, he will not waste precious moments and he will not cause trouble to others. Rizal, in his plan for a model school, provided: "Accuracy and punctuality will be strictly observed in all things and all resolutions and orders of the schools will be enforced to the letter and minute." Thoroughness! If a person makes it a rule to do everything carefully, so that no detail of his task is omitted or neglected, he will find himself successful in his class work and later in his business or profession. Those who work in a careless manner, doing only the minimum, are sure to fail sooner or later. Honesty! No man ever achieved true success who arrived at his goal through improper methods. Honesty is always the best policy. Courage! Some show courage in war by giving their lives for their country. This makes them heroes. Others can show moral courage in school, in office, or in their dealings with their fellow men. They are also heroes. Perseverance! If we gave up every time we encoun tered an obstacle, we should never succeed at anything. If we try long and hard enough we can solve any difficulty, whether it be a complex problem in arithmetic or a serious problem in life. Thrift! Thrift has been defined by the Treasury Department of the United States Government as "the good management of the business of living." This means that by saving, money can be accumulated to care for oneself and one's family, and as capital to enter business. 9. Patriotism.-One of the civic virtues is patriotism, or love of native land. There is a famous poem which contains these lines: Breathes there the man with soul so dead "This is my own, my native land!" The song, "Philippines, My Philippines," begins: I love my own, my native land, Philippines, My Philippines, The trees that crown thy mountains grand, Awake my heart to thy command, Philippines, My Philippines. The flag is the emblem of patriotism. The American flag and the Philippine flag should be treated with great respect. The national anthem is another emblem of patriotism. When the "Star Spangled Banner," the anthem of the |