position must be maintained during the whole term of expiration, for any unsteadiness of the organs will bring about a fresh sound. The least elevation or depression of the tongue, the least alteration in the position of the lips, will give rise to corresponding modifications of vowel tone. And slight as such differences may appear in the utterance of individual words, their recurrence in continued discourse renders then at once obvious and offensive.

The terms 'long' and 'short' have been sometimes used to designate this co-relation of vowel sounds; but they are misleading, and to their use may be traced a not uncommon fault of clipping the so-called 'short' (shut) vowel sounds. Shades of vowel sound derive their differences from corresponding alterations in the shape of the cavity of the mouth, and not from varying degrees of mere duration. The proof of this lies in the fact that in singing, provided a uniform position of the organs be maintained, every vowel sound can be indefinitely sustained without the least deviation from its specific character.

Consonant Sounds.

16. A Consonant sound is produced by the partial or complete contact of the articulative organs, which contact obstructs the current of breath as it passes through the mouth. It derived its name from the supposed necessity of subjoining a vowel sound. But the reader must distinguish between the power and the name of a consonant. For while the name requires the presence of a vowel sound, the power may be distinctly exhibited without any such assistance.

The following is a list of the various consonant sounds of the English language :

Table of the Twenty-four Consonant Sounds.

1. p as heard in p-i-pe

13. sh as heard in sh-out

To this table of consonant sounds are added tables of letters (Appendix No. II.), showing how the several sounds are represented in the written language. As in the case of the vowel sounds, these lists will be found useful as materials upon which the pupil, in accordance with his special defects, may be exercised.

17. Division of Consonant Sounds.-The consonant sounds are divided:

First. With reference to the particular organs of speech engaged in producing them.

Secondly. With reference to the quality of the breath employed in their production.

18. Organic Division of Consonant Sounds. With reference to the particular organs employed in producing them, consonants may be divided into

3. Lingua-palatal.

1. Labial.

2. Labio-dental.

5. Oral.

4. Lingua-guttural, and

(i.) The Labial pipe, babe, maim, woe, when, are produced by the perfect or partial approximation of the lips.

P is formed by the perfect contact and separation of the lips Bis formed by precisely the same action as p, but is distinguished from it by the breath with which the mouth is filled being 'vocal,' while in the production of the p this breath is ' aspirate.'

Obs. The student is now in a position to realise the appropriateness of the term vocal (2); for he will find that he can sing the musical scale on the power of b, while the power of p can be produced by the same individual on one note, and one only.

M is formed by similar contact of the lips, but the vocal breath, which in b is confined in the mouth, is in m allowed to pass through the nose.

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W is formed on the basis of the vowel oo-ze, from which it is distinguished by the greater protrusion of the lips, and by their forcible and jerking action. Wh is the same as w, but with initial aspiration.

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Thus what, when, are sounded as if written hoo-at, hoo-en, the oo being converted into a consonant sound by the forcible and jerking action of the lips.

(ii.) The Labio-dental fife, vile, are formed by the complete contact of the lower lip with the upper teeth.

The distinction with regard to the breath described in the case of p and b exists also between f and v.

(iii.) The Lingua-palatal tile, deed, lull, nun, sit, zone, thigh, thy, shout, azure, run, mar, are formed by the partial or complete contact of the tip of the tongue with the gums of the upper teeth.

T and d are alike formed by the complete contact of the tip of the tongue with the gums of the upper teeth; but in t the efflux of aspirate breath is stopped immediately the organs come in contact; while in d vocal breath continues to be heard until the mouth is filled with air.

L, the most euphonious of the consonants, is produced by the same position of the organs as t and d, but the vocal breath which in d is confined within the mouth, is in allowed to flow freely through the mouth over the sides of the tongue.

In n, too, the same position of the organs is kept; but the voice, as in m, passes through the nose. The absence, indeed, in these letters of

this nasal 'ring' will convert m and n respectively into b and d. Thus the word medicine will, with closed nostrils, be sounded as if written bed'cid.

S is formed similarly to the foregoing, but the contact is partial only, the breath, which in t is arrested, being in s allowed to escape over the tip of the tongue. In z, which otherwise is the same as s, the breath is vocal, and diminishes the hissing character of the sound.

Th (thigh) is formed by the complete contact of the tip of the tongue with the edges of the front upper teeth; th (thy) by a similar action, with the introduction of vocal breath.

Sh (shout) is very nearly allied to s; but the contact is closer and spread over a wider margin of the gums. When voice is substituted for mere breath, the same action produces zh (azure).

There are two forms of the letter r. One is produced by trilling the tip of the tongue against the frontal palate; the other by curling up the tongue till its tip almost touches the roof of the mouth, producing

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a sound very much resembling the vowel u-p. That formed by the former action is called trilled; that by the latter, smooth.

(iv.) The Lingua-guttural kick, gig, sing, are formed by the complete contact of the base of the tongue with the palatine arch.

In the contact of the organs is silent, and completely stops the efflux of aspirate breath; in g there is an obscure vocality, which lasts while the back part of the throat is filling with air; while in ng this vocality, as in m and n, is allowed to pass through the nose. Thus with closed nostrils the words ringing and singing would sound as if written riggig and siggig.

(v.) The Oral he, ye, are formed by the passage of air through the mouth.

II is nothing more than a forcible expulsion of breath through an open mouth.

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Y is formed on the basis of the vowel ce-l, from which, however, it is distinguished by the jerking action of the jaw.

It may be proper to remark here that h, w, and y do not strictly conform to the definition of consonants; for in their formation there is no actual contact of the articulative organs. But as they fulfil at the beginning of syllables the purposes of articulation, and have in this eituation the full power of consonants, there is clearly no objection to their being thus classed.

W and y, however, lose their consonantal character when final in a syllable. They are then exactly equivalent to the vowels oo and ee. But they are consonantal at the beginning of syllables, or there would be no difference between swoon and a prolonged pronunciation of soon, nor between year and ear. Moreover, no iteration, or prolongation, of oo will convert it into woo; nor of ee into ye.

19. Division of Consonant Sounds based on quality of Breath. With reference to the quality of breath employed in their production, consonants are divided into i. Aspirate, and ii. Vocal.

20. Aspirate Consonants.-The first class derive their distinctive character from possessing no vocality; the sounds emitted in their formation being pure whisperings, or, as they are better termed, aspirations. In some (p, t, k) the contact of the organs stops all efflux of breath, allowing no power of prolongation. These may be accordingly termed Explosive Aspirates. The rest (f, 8, h, wh, th, sh) are capable of being continued at will; that is, as long as the breath may last. Thesc, therefore, may be termed Sustained Aspirates. But, from the absence of vocality, both the Explosive and Sustained Aspirates are severally incapable of being varied in pitch (18, i. obs.).