present building, was consecrated by Urban II. in 1096. The church is the largest Romanesque basilica in existence, being 375 ft. from east to west and 210 ft. in extreme breadth. The nave (12th and 13th centuries) has double aisles. Four pillars, supporting the central tower, are surrounded by heavy masonry, which somewhat spoils the general harmony of the interior. In the southern transept is the "portail des comtes," so named because near it lie the tombs of William Taillefer, Pons, and other early counts of Toulouse. The little chapel in which these tombs (ascribed to the 11th century) are found was restored by the capitols of Toulouse in 1648. Another chapel contains a Byzantine Christ of late 11th-century workmanship. The choir (11th and 12th centuries) ends in an apse, or rather chevet, surrounded by a range of columns, marking off an aisle, which in its turn op opens into five chapels. The stalls are of 16th-century work and grotesquely carved. Against the northern wall is an ancient table d'autel, which an 11th-century inscription declares to have belonged to St Sernin. In the crypts are many relics, which, however, were robbed of their gold and silver shrines during the Revolution. On the south there is a fine outer porch in the Renaissance style; it is surmounted by a representation of the Ascension in Byzantine style. The central tower (13th century) consists of five storeys, of which the two highest are of later date, but harmonize with the three lower ones. A restoration of St Sernin was carried out in the 19th century by Viollet-le-Duc. one. The cathedral, dedicated to St Stephen, dates from three different epochs. The walls of the nave belong to a Romanesque cathedral of the 11th century, but its roof dates from the first half of the 13th century. The choir was begun by Bishop Bertrand de l'Ile (c. 1272), who wished to build another church in place of the old This wish was unfulfilled and the original nave, the axis of which is to the south of that of the choir, remains. The choir was burned in 1690 but restored soon after. It is surrounded by seventeen chapels, finished by the cardinal d'Orléans, nephew of Louis XI., about the beginning of the 16th century, and adorned with glass dating from the 15th to the 17th century. The western gate, flanked by a huge square tower, was constructed by Peter du Moulin, archbishop of Toulouse, from 1439 to 1451. It has been greatly battered, and presents but a poor approximation to its ancient beauty. Over this gate, which was once ornamented with the statues of St Sernin, St Exuperius and the twelve apostles, as well as those of the two brother archbishops of Toulouse, Denis (1423-1439) and Peter du Moulin, there is a beautiful 13th-century rose-window, whose centre, however, is not in a perpendicular line with the point of the Gothic arch below. Among other remarkable churches may be noticed Notre-Dame de la Daurade, near the Pont Neuf, built on the site of a 9th-century Benedictine abbey and reconstructed towards the end of the 18th century; and Notre-Dame de la Dalbade; perhaps existing in the 11th, but in its present form dating from the 16th century, with a fine Renaissance portal. The church of the Jacobins, held by Viollet-le-Duc to be "one of the most beautiful brick churches constructed in the middle ages,' was built towards the end of the 13th century, and consists of a nave divided into two aisles by a range of columns. The chief exterior feature is a beautiful octagonal belfry. The church belonged to a Dominican monastery, of which part of the cloister, the refectory, the chapter-hall and the chapel also remain and are utilized by the lycée. Of the other secular buildings the most noteworthy are the capitole and the museum. The capitole has a long lonic façade built from 1750 to 1760. The theatre is situated in the left wing. Running along almost the whole length of the first floor is the salle des illustres adorned with modern paintings and sculptures relating to the history of the town. The museum (opened in 1795) occupies, besides a large modern building, the church, cloisters and other buildings of an old Augustinian convent. It contains pictures and a splendid collection of antiquities, notably a series of statues and busts of Roman emperors and others and much Romanesque sculpture. There is an auxiliary museum in the old college of St Raymond. The natural history museum is in the Jardin des Plantes. law courts stand on the site of the old Château Narbonais, once The the residence of the counts of Toulouse and later the seat of the parlement of Toulouse. Near by is a statue of the jurist Jacques Cujas, born at Toulouse. Toulouse is singularly rich in mansions of the 16th and 17th centuries. Among these may be mentioned the Hôtel Bernuy, a fine Renaissance building now used by the lycée and the Hôtel d'Assézat of the same period, now the property of the Académie des Jeux Floraux (see below), and of the learned societies of the city. In the court of the latter there is a statue of Clémence Isaure, a lady of Toulouse, traditionally supposed to have enriched the Académie by a bequest in the 15th century. The Maison de Pierre has an elaborate stone façade of 1612. Toulouse is the seat of an archbishopric, of a court of appeal, a court of assizes and of a prefect. It is also the headquarters of the XVII. army corps and centre of an educational circumscription (académie). There are tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitration, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. The educational institutions include faculties of law, medicine and pharmacy, science and letters, a Catholic institute with faculties of theology and letters, higher and lower ecclesiastical seminaries, lycées and training colleges for both sexes, and schools of veterinary science, fine arts and industrial sciences and music. Toulouse, the principal commercial and industrial centre of Languedoc, has important markets for horses, wine, grain, flowers, leather, oil and farm produce. Its pastry and other delicacies are highly esteemed. Its industrial establishments include the national tobacco factory, flour-mills, saw-mills, engineering workshops and factories for farming implements, bicycles, vehicles, artificial manures, paper, boots and shoes, and flour pastes. TOLOSA, chief town of the Volcae Tectosages, does not seem to have been a place of great importance during the early centuries of the Roman rule in Gaul, though in 106 B.C. the pillage of its temple by Q. S. Cepio, afterwards routed by the Cimbri, gave rise to the famous Latin proverb habet aurum Tolosanum, in allusion to ill-gotten gains. It possessed a circus and an amphitheatre, but its most remarkable remains are to be found on the heights of Old Toulouse (vetus Tolosa) some 6 or 7 m. to the east, where huge accumulations of broken pottery and fragments of an old earthen wall mark the site of an ancient settlement. The numerous coins that have been discovered on the same spot do not date back farther than the 2nd century B.C., and seem to indicate the position of a Roman manufacturing centre then beginning to occupy the Gallic hill-fortress that, in earlier days, had in times of peril been the stronghold of the native tribes dwelling on the river bank. Tolosa does not seem to have been a Roman colony; but its importance must have increased greatly towards the middle of the 4th century. It is to be found entered in more than one itinerary dating from about this time; and Ausonius, in his Ordo nobilium urbium, alludes to it in terms implying that it then had a large population. In 419 it was made the capital of his kingdom by Wallia, king of the Visigoths, under whom or whose successors it became the seat of the great Teutonic kingdom of the West-Goths-a kingdom that within fifty years had extended itself from the Loire to Gibraltar and from the Rhone to the Atlantic. On the defeat of Alaric II. (507) Toulouse fell into the hands of Clovis, who carried away the royal treasures to Angoulême. Under the Merovingian kings it seems to have remained the greatest city of southern Gaul, and is said to have been governed by dukes or counts dependent on one or other of the rival kings descended from the great founder of the Frankish monarchy. It figures prominently in the pages of Gregory of Tours and Sidonius Apollinaris. About 628 Dagobert erected South Aquitaine into a kingdom for his brother Charibert, who chose Toulouse as his capital. For the next eighty years its history is obscure, till we reach the days of Charles Martel, when it was besieged by Sema, the leader of the Saracens from Spain (c. 715-720), but delivered by Eudes, "princeps Aquitaniae," in whom later writers discovered the ancestor of all the later counts of Toulouse. Modern criticism, however, has discredited this genealogy; and the real history of Toulouse recommences in 780 or 781, when Charlemagne appointed his little son Louis king of Aquitaine, with Toulouse for his chief city. During the minority of the young king his tutor Chorson ruled at Toulouse with the title of duke or count. Being deposed at the Council of Worms (790), he was succeeded by who in 806 retired to his newly founded monastery at Gellone, William Courtnez, the traditional hero of southern France, where he died in 812. In the unhappy days of the emperor Louis the Pious and his children Toulouse suffered in common with the rest of western Europe. It was besieged by Charles the Bald in 844, and taken four years later by the Normans, who in 843 had sailed up the Garonne as far as its walls. About 852 Raymond I., count of. Quercy, succeeded his brother Fridolo as count of Rouergue and Toulouse; it is from this noble that all the later counts of Toulouse trace their descent. Raymond I.'s grandchildren divided their parents' estates; of these Raymond II. (d. 924) became count of Toulouse, and Ermengaud, count of Rouergue, while the hereditary titles of Gothia, Quercy and Albi were shared between them. Raymond II.'s grandson, William Taillefer (d. c. 1037), married Emma of Provence, and handed down part of that lordship to his younger son Bertrand.' | parlement of Toulouse was established as a permanent court William's elder son Pons left two children, of whom William IV. | in 1443. Louis XI. transferred it to Montpellier in 1467, but succeeded his father in Toulouse, Albi, Quercy, &c.; while restored it to Toulouse before the close of the next year. This the younger, Raymond IV. of St Gilles (c. 1066), made him- parlement was for Languedoc and southern France what the self master of the vast possessions of the counts of Rouergue, parlement of Paris was for the north. During the religious married his cousin the heiress of Provence, and about 1085 began wars of the 16th century the Protestants of the town made to rule the immense estates of his elder brother, who was still two unsuccessful attempts to hand it over to the prince de living. Condé. After St Bartholomew's Day (1572) 300 of the party were massacred. Towards the end of the 16th century, during the wars of the League, the parlement was split up into three different sections, sitting respectively at Carcassonne or Béziers, at Castle Sarrasin, and at Toulouse. The three were reunited in 1596. Under Francis I. it began to persecute heretics, and in 1619 rendered itself notorious by burning the philosopher Vanini. In 1762 Jean Calas, an old man falsely accused of murdering his eldest son to prevent him becoming a Roman Catholic, was broken on the wheel. By the exertions of Voltaire his character was afterwards rehabilitated. The university of Toulouse owes its origin to the action of Gregory IX., who in 1229 bound Raymond VII. to maintain four masters to teach theology and eight others for canon law, grammar, and the liberal arts. Civil law and medicine were taught only a few years later. The famous "Floral Games" of Toulouse, in which the poets of Languedoc contended (May 1-3) for the prize of the golden amaranth and other gold or silver flowers, given at the expense of the city, were instituted in 1323-1324. The Académie des Jeux Floraux still awards these prizes for compositions in poetry and prose. In 1814 the duke of Wellington defeated Marshal Soult to the north-east of the town. From this time the counts of Toulouse were the greatest lords in southern France. Raymond IV., the hero of the first crusade, assumed the formal titles of marquis of Provence, duke of Narbonne and count of Toulouse. While Raymond was away in the Holy Land, Toulouse was seized by William IX., duke of Aquitaine, who claimed the city in right of his wife Philippa, the daughter of William IV., but was unable to hold it long (1098-1100). Raymond's son and successor Bertrand followed his father's example and set out for the Holy Land in 1109, leaving his great estates at his death to his brother Alphonse Jourdain. The rule of this prince was disturbed by the ambition of William IX. and his grand-daughter | Eleanor, who urged her husband Louis VII. to support her claims to Toulouse by war. On her divorce from Louis and her marriage with Henry II., Eleanor's claims passed on to this monarch, who at last forced Raymond V. to do him homage for Toulouse in 1173. Raymond V., the patron of the troubadours, died in 1194, and was succeeded by his son Raymond VI., under whose rule Languedoc was desolated by the crusaders of Simon de Montfort, who occupied Toulouse in 1215, but lost his life in besieging it in 1218. Raymond VII., the son of Raymond VI. and Princess Joan of England, succeeded his father in 1222, and died in 1249, leaving an only daughter Joan, married to Alfonso the brother of Louis IX. On the death of Alfonso and Joan in 1271 the vast inheritance of the counts of Toulouse lapsed to the Crown. From the middle years of the 12th century the people of Toulouse seem to have begun to free themselves from the most oppressive feudal dues. An act of Alphonse Jourdain (1141) exempts them from the tax on salt and wine; and in 1152 we have traces of a commune consilium Tolosae" making police ordinances in its own name with the advice of Lord Raymond, count of Toulouse, duke of Narbonne, and marquis of Provence." This act is witnessed by six "capitularii," four duly appointed judges (judices constituti), and two advocates. Twenty-three years later there are twelve capitularii or consuls, six for the city and six for its suburbs, all of them elected and sworn to do justice in whatever municipal matters were brought before them. In 1222 their number was increased to twenty-four; but they were forbidden to touch the city property, which was to remain in the charge of certain "communarii" chosen by themselves. Early in the 14th century the consuls took the name of "doinini de capitulo," or, a little later, that of "capitulum nobilium." From the 13th century the consuls met in their own house, the "palatium communitatis Tolosae" or hotel-de-ville. In the 16th century a false derivation changed the ancient consuls (domini de capitulo) into the modern "capitouls" (domini capitolii tolosani), a barbarous etymology which in its turn has, in the present century, transformed the old assembly house of Toulouse into the capitole. The 1 About 975 there was a partition of the estates which William Taillefer and his cousin Raymond II. of Auvergne held in common, -Albi, Quercy, &c., falling to William, and Gothia, &c., to Raymond. List of the counts of Toulouse: 924-C. 950 c. 950-c. 1037 1037-1060 1060-c. 1093 See L. Ariste and L. Brand, Histoire populaire de Toulouse depuis les origines jusqu'à ce jour (Toulouse, 1898). This work contains an exhaustive bibliography. TOUNGOO, or TAUNG-NGU, a town and district in the Tenasserim division of Lower Burma. The town is situated on the right bank of the river Sittang, 166 m. by rail N. from Rangoon. Pop. (1901), 15,837. From the 14th to the 16th century it was the capital of an independent kingdom. After the second Burmese War it was an important frontier station, but the troops were withdrawn in 1893. The district of Toungoo has an area of 6172 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 279,315, showing an increase of 32% in the preceding decade. Three mountain ranges traverse the district-the Pegu Yomas, the Karen, and the Nat-taung or "Great Watershed"-all of which have a north and south direction, and are covered for the most part with dense forest. The Pegu Yomas have a general elevation of from 800 to 1200 ft., while the central range averages from 2000 to 3000 ft. The rest of Toungoo forms the upper portion of the valley of the Sittang, the only large river in the district, the chief tributaries of which are the Shwa, Hkabaung, Hpyu Thank-ye-Kat and Yank-thua-wa, all navigable for a great portion of their course. Limestone appears in various places, and in the north-east a light grey marble is quarried for lime. The rivers form the chief means of communication during the rainy season. The rainfall in 1905 was 80.30 in. There are 14 railway stations in the district. Rice is the staple crop; there are promising plantations of coffee and rubber. Forests cover more than 5000 sq. m., of which 1337 sq. m. have been reserved, yielding a large revenue. TOUP, JONATHAN [JOANNES TOUPIUS) (1713-1785), English classical scholar and critic, was born at St Ives in Cornwall, and was educated at a private school and Exeter College, Oxford. Having taken orders, he became rector of St Martin's Exeter, where he died on the 19th of January 1785. Toup established his reputation by his Emendationes in Suidam (1760-1766, followed in 1775 by a supplement) and his edition of Longinus (1778), including notes and emendations by 1109-1148 Ruhnken. The excellence of Toup's scholarship was "known 1148-1194 to the learned throughout Europe" (so epitaph on the tablet 1194-1222 in the church of East Looc set up by the delegates of the Clarendon Press), but his overbearing manner and extreme self-confidence made him many enemies. 1093-1096 1222-1249 1249-1271 100 present building, was consecrat church is the largest Romanc 375 ft. from east to west and 210 (12th and 13th centuries) has de ing the central tower, are surr somewhat spoils the general southern transept is the " por near it lie the tombs of Willi counts of Toulouse. The littl cribed to the 11th century) ar of Toulouse in 1648. Another of late 11th-century workma centuries) ends in an apse, or of columns, marking off an ai chapels. The stalls are of carved. Against the norther which an 11th-century inscri St Sernin. In the crypts are robbed of their gold and si! On the south there is a fine c it is surmounted by a represe: style. The central tower (1, of which the two highest are three lower ones. A restora the 19th century by Viollet... The cathedral, dedicated to epochs. The walls of the na of the 11th century, but its 13th century. The choir wa (c. 1272), who wished to bui one. This wish was unfulfil which is to the south of that burned in 1690 but restored teen chapels, finished by the c about the beginning of the dating from the 15th to ti flanked by a huge square Moulin, archbishop of Toul greatly battered, and pres ancient beauty. Over this the statues of St Sernin, as well as those of the two (1423-1439) and Peter du rose-window, whose centr line with the point of the ( Among other remarkab de la Daurade, near the Po. Benedictine abbey and re century; and Notre-Dame 11th, but in its present f a fine Renaissance porta Viollet-le-Duc to be "o constructed in the midc. the 13th century, and by a range of columns. octagonal belfry. The c of which part of the cl chapel also remain ar secular buildings the museum. The capito to 1760. The theatre almost the whole len adorned with modern of the town. The large modern build of an old Augustini collection of antiq Roman emperors There is an auxil The natural hist law courts stanc the residence of parlement of T Cujas, born at Toulouse is centuries. A a fine Renai d'Assézat of des Jeux Fl In the co lady of Académi has an Toul a cour of the scrip com and in me of which, Jocal, and is written manograph and Westerman, Saber infrontion is Tamum amilaologie, wn as to their They seem to don coming as to their mis said to make he colour. An antion which ge. So long Sciety, 1871, ind he vanishes her same interval which the Cuculidae the Cuculine Cacuform birds out (Ann. Nat. ed in common by attached to the to the so-called T. Reinhardt forening, 1871, by the os uncinghe Plantain-eaters t be placed on the frigate-bird (q.) seems also to be all the species of Musoalong the margin but usually directed fund outside of the Brace, which stretched Onions, W. by Anjou and t of Vercingetorix E speel the founded the Teen and whose tomb in the Toes was besieged by the sssful resistance in the territory d to adopt the ence in religion of the province by ported by the miraculous St Chill, wie of Clovis, spent Ts. The possession dispute between jed no settled blished Alcuin te his auspices the of leaming in water was Sal Society of af Professor Turacin, WIL 201; The property on the middle ages. In the 9th century Tours also became the | Ghent. Pop. (1906), 62,694 (commune, 81,671), of whom ecclesiastical metropolis of Brittany, Maine and Anjou, and about one-third are natives of Belgium. Tourcoing is pracwhen the empire was divided by Louis the Pious into various tically one with Roubaix to the south, being united thereto by districts or missalica, Tours was the centre of one of these, a tramway and a branch of the Canal de Roubaix. The public the boundaries of which corresponded roughly with those of institutions comprise a tribunal of commerce, a board of trade the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the city. Touraine suffered arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, an exchange and a condifrom the invasions of the Northmen, who massacred the tioning house for textiles. Together with Roubaix, Tourcoing monks of Marmoutier in 853, but never pillaged Tours. The ranks as one of the chief textile centres of France. Its chief administration of Touraine was entrusted, from Merovingian industry is the combing, spinning and twisting of wool times onward, to counts appointed by the crown. The office carried on in some eighty factories employing between became hereditary in 940 or 941 with Thibault the Old or the 10,000 and 12,000 workpeople. The spinning and twisting "Tricheur." His son Odo I. was attacked by Fulk the Black, of cotton is also important. The weaving establishments count of Anjou, and despoiled of part of his territory. His produce woollen and mixed woollen and cotton fabrics together grandson Thibault III., who refused homage to Henry I., with silk and satin drapery, swanskins, jerseys and other fancy king of France, in 1044, was entirely dispossessed by Geoffrey goods. The making of velvet pile carpets and upholstering of Anjou, called the Hammer (d. 1060). The 7th count, materials is a speciality of the town. To these industries Fulk (d. 1109), ruled both Anjou and Touraine, and the county must be added those of dyeing, the manufacture of hosiery, of Touraine remained under the domination of the counts of of the machinery and other apparatus used in the textile factories Anjou (q.v.) until Henry II. of England deprived his brother and of soap. Geoffrey of Touraine by force of arms. Henry II. carried out many improvements, but peace was destroyed by the revolt of his sons. Richard Coeur de Lion, in league with Philip Augustus, had seized Touraine, and after his death Arthur of Brittany was recognized as count. In 1204 it was united to the French crown, and its cession was formally acknowledged by King John at Chinon in 1214. Philip appointed Guillaume des Roches hereditary seneschal in 1204, but the dignity was ceded to the crown in 1312. Touraine was granted from time to time to princes of the blood as an appanage of the crown of France. In 1328 it was held by Jeanne of Burgundy, queen of France; by Philip, duke of Orleans, in 1344; and in 1360. it was made a peerage duchy on behalf of Philip the Bold, | afterwards duke of Burgundy. It was the scene of dispute between Charles, afterwards Charles VII., and his mother, Isabel of Bavaria, who was helped by the Burgundians. After his expulsion from Paris by the English Charles spent much of his time in the châteaux of Touraine, although his seat of government was at Bourges. He bestowed the duchy successively on his wife Mary of Anjou, on Archibald Douglas and on Louis III. of Anjou. It was the dower of Mary Stuart as the widow of Francis II. The last duke of Touraine was Francis, duke of Alençon, who died in 1584. Plessis-les-Tours had been the favourite residence of Louis XI., who granted many privileges to the town of Tours, and increased its prosperity by the establishment of the silk-weaving industry. The reformed religion numbered many adherents in Touraine, who suffered in the massacres following on the conspiracy of Amboise; and, though in 1562 the army of Condé pillaged the city of Tours, the marshal of St André reconquered Touraine for the Catholic party. Many Huguenots emigrated after the massacre of St Bartholomew, and after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes the silk industry, which had been mainly in the hands of the Huguenots, was almost destroyed. This migration was one of the prime causes of the extreme poverty of the province in the next century. At the Revolution the nobles of Touraine made a declaration expressing their sympathy with the ideas of liberty and fraternity. Among the many famous men who were born within its boundaries are Jean le Meingre Boucicaut, marshal of France, Béroalde de Verville, author of the Moyen de parvenir, Rabelais, Cardinal Richelieu, C. J. Avisseau, the potter (1796-1861), the novelist Balzac and the poet Alfred de Vigny. See the quarterly publication of the Mémoires of the Société archéologique de Touraine (1842, &c.) which include a Dictionnaire géographique, historique et biographique (6 vols., 1878-1884), by JX. Carré de Busserolle. There are histories of Touraine and its monuments by Chalmel (4 vols. Paris, 1828), by S. Bellanger (Paris, 1845). by Bourrassé (1858). See also Dupin de Saint André, Hist. du protestantisme en Touraine (Paris, 1885); T. A. Cook, Old Touraine (2 vols. London, 1892). TOURCOING, a manufacturing town of northern France in the department of Nord, less than a mile from the Belgian frontier, and 8 m. N.N.E. of Lille on the railway to Famed since the 12th century for its woollen manufactures, Tourcoing was fortified by the Flemings in 1477, when Louis XI. of France disputed the inheritance of Charles the Bold with Mary of Burgundy, but in the same year was taken and pillaged by the French. In 1794 the Republican army, under Generals Moreau and Souham, gained a decisive victory over the Austrians, the event being commemorated by a monument in the public garden. The inhabitants, 18,000 in 1789, were reduced by the French Revolution to 10,000. TOURMALINE, a mineral of much interest to the physicist account of its optical and electrical properties; it is also of some geological importance as a rock-constituent (see SCHORL), whilst certain transparent varieties have economic value as gem-stones. The name is probably a corruption of turmali, or toramalli, the native name applied to tourmaline and zircon in Ceylon, whence specimens of the former mineral were brought to Europe by the Dutch in 1703. The green tourmaline of Brazil had, however, been known here much earlier; and coarse varieties of the mineral had passed for centuries under the German name of Schörl, an old mining word of uncertain origin, possibly connected with the old German Schor (refuse), in allusion to the occurrence of the mineral with the waste of the tin-mines. The German village of Schorlau may have taken its name from the mineral. It has been suggested that the Swedish form skörl has possible connexion with the word skor, brittle. Tourmaline crystallizes in the rhombohedral division of the hexagonal system. The crystals have generally a prismatic habit, the prisms being longitudinally striated or even channelled. Trigonal prisms are characteristic, so that a transverse section becomes triangular or often nine-sided. By combination of several prisms the crystals may become sub-cylindrical. The crystals when doubly terminated are often hemimorphic or present dissimilar forms at the opposite ends; thus the hexagonal prisms in fig. I are terminated at one end by rhombohedral faces, o, P, and at the other by the basal plane k'. Doublyterminated crystals, however, are comattached at one end to the matrix. It is paratively rare; the crystals being usually notable that prismatic crystals of tourmaline have in some cases been curved and fractured transversely; the displaced by deposition of fresh mineral matter. Tourmaline is not infrefragments having been cemented together quently columnar, acicular or fibrous; and the fibres may radiate FIG. I. from a centre so as to form the so-called "tourmaline suns. Crystals of tourmaline present no distinct cleavage, but break with a sub-conchoidal fracture; and whilst the general lustre of the mineral is vitreous, that of the fractured surface is rather pitchy. The hardness is slightly above that of quartz (7). The specific gravity varies according to chemical composition, that of the colourless varieties being about 3, whilst in schorl it may rise to 3.2. Tourmaline has a great range of colour, and in many cases the crystals are curiously parti-coloured. Occasionally, though rarely, the mineral is colourless, and is then known as achroite, a name proposed by R. Hermann in 1845, and derived from the Greek áxpoos (uncoloured). Red tourmaline, which when of fine colour is the most valued of all varieties, is known as rubellite (q.v.). Green tourmaline is by no means uncommon, but the blue is rather rate and is distinguished by the name indigolite, generally written indicolite. Brown is a common colour, and black still more common, this being the usual colour of schorl, or common coarse tourmaline. Thin splinters of schorl may, however, be blue or brown by transmitted light. The double refraction of tourmaline is strong. The mineral is optically negative, the ordinary index being about 1-64, and the extraordinary 1-62. Coloured tourmalines are intensely pleochroic, the ordinary ray, which vibrates perpendicular to the principal axis, being much more strongly absorbed than the extraordinary; hence a slice cut in the direction of the principal or optic axis transmits sensibly only the extraordinary ray, and may consequently be used as a polarizing medium. The brown tourmaline of Ceylon and Brazil is best adapted for this purpose, but the green is also used. Two plates properly mounted form the instrument used by opticians for testing spectacle-lenses, and are known as the "tourmaline tongs.' In order to secure the best colour-effect when used as a gem-stone, the tourmaline should be cut with the table parallel to the optic It was in tourmaline that the phenomenon of pyroelectricity was first observed. On being heated in peat ashes its attractive power was observed by the Dutch, in the early part of the 18th century; and this curious character obtained for it the name of aschtrekker, or ash-drawer. J. R. Haüy first pointed out the relation of pyroclectricity with hemimorphism. Tourmaline is also piezoelectric, that is, it becomes electric by pressure. If a crystal be subjected to pressure along the optic axis, it behaves as though it were contracting by reduction of temperature. The mineral may also be rendered electric by friction, and retains the charge for a long time. axis. " Tourmaline is a boro-silicate of singularly complex composition. Indeed the word tourmaline is sometimes regarded as the name of a group of isomorphous minerals rather than that of a definite species. Numerous analyses have been made, and the results discussed by a large number of authorities. In the view of S. L. Penfield and H. W. Foote all tourmaline may be derived from a boro-silicic acid of the formula HBO. It is believed that the hydrogen is present as hydroxyl, and that this may be partially replaced by fluorine. The tourmaline acid has probably the constitution His(B-OID),SiO. Nine atoms of hydrogen are replaced by three of aluminium, and the remaining nine in part by other metals. Lithium is present in red tourmaline; magnesium dominates in brown; iron, manganese and sometimes chromium are found in green; and much iron occurs in the black varieties. Four groups are sometimes recognized, characterized by the presence of (1) lithium, (2) ferrous iron, (3) ferric iron and (4) magnesium. Tourmaline occurs commonly in granite, greisen, gneiss and crystalline schists. In many cases it appears to have been formed by pneumatolysis, or the action on the rocks of heated vapours containing boron and fluorine, as in many tin-bearing districts, where tourmaline is a characteristic mineral. Near the margin of a mass of granite the rock often becomes schorlaceous or tourmaliniferous, and may pass into "tourmaline-rock," which is usually an aggregate of tourmaline and quartz. Tourmaline is an essential constituent of the west of England rocks called luxullianite (luxulyanite) and trowlesworthite. It occurs embedded in certain metamorphic limestones, where it is possibly due to fumarolic action. Microscopic crystals are common in clay-slate. By resistance to decomposition, tourmaline often survives the disintegration of the matrix, and thus passes into sands, clays, marls and other sedimentary deposits. Many of the finest crystals of tourmaline occur in druses in granitic rocks, such as those of San Piero in Elba, where some of the pale pink and green prisms are tipped with black, and have consequently been called nigger-heads.' Lepidolite is a common associate of tourmaline, as at Rozena in Moravia. Tourmaline occurs, with corundum, in the dolomite of Campolongo, in canton Ticino, Switzerland. Fine black crystals, associated with apatite and quartz, were formerly found in granite at Chudleigh, near Bovey Tracey in Devonshire. The Russian localities for tourmaline are mentioned under RUBELLITE. Most of the tourmaline cut for jewelry comes from the gem-gravels of Ceylon. The green tourmaline has generally a yellowish or olive-green colour, and is known as "Ceylon chrysolite." Fine green crystals are found in Brazil, notably in the topaz-locality of Minas Novas; and when of vivid colour they have been called "Brazilian emeralds." Green tour maline is a favourite ecclesiastical stone in South America Blue tourmaline occurs with the green; this variety is found also at Utö in Sweden (its original locality) and notably near Hazaribagh in Bengal. Certain kinds of mica occasionally contain flat crystals of tourmaline between the cleavage-planes. Many localities in the United States are famous for tourmaline. Magnificent specimens have been obtained from Mt Mica, near Paris, Maine, where the mineral was accidentally discovered in 1820 by two students, E. L. Hamlin and E. Holmes. It occurs in granite, with lepidolite, smoky quartz, spodumene, &c.; and some of the prismatic crystals are notable for being red at one end and green at the other. Mt Rubellite at Hebron, and Mt Apatite at Auburn, are other localities in Maine which have yielded fine tourmaline. At Chesterfield, Massachusetts, remarkable crystals occur, some of which show on transverse section a triangular nucleus of red tourmaline surrounded by a shell of green. Red and green tourmalines, with lepidolite and kunzite, are found in San Diego county, California. Fine coloured tourmalines occur at Haddam Neck, Connecticut; and excellent crystals of black tourmaline are well known from Pierrepont, New York, whilst remarkable_brown crystals occur in limestone at Gouverneur in the same state. Canada is rich in tourmaline, notably at Burgess in Lanark county, Ontario, and at Grand Calumet Island in the Ottawa river. Heemskirk Mountain, Tasmania, and Kangaroo Island, South Australia, have yielded fine coloured tourmaline fit for jewelry. Madagascar is a well-known locality for black tourmaline in large crystals. Many varieties of tourmaline have received distinctive names, some of which are noticed above. Dravite is G. Tschermak's name for a brown tourmaline, rich in magnesia but with little iron, occurring near Unter Drauburg in the Drave district in Carinthia. Taltalite was a name given by I. Domeyko to a mixture of tourmaline and copper ore from Taltal in Chile. The colourless Elba tourmaline was called apyrite by J. F. L. Hausmann, in allusion to its refractory behaviour before the blow-pipe; whilst a black iron-tourmaline from Norway was termed aphrazite by J. B. d'Andrada, in consequence of its intumescence when heated. (F. W. R.*) art. TOURNAI (Flemish Doornik), a city of Belgium, in the province of Hainaut, situated on the Scheldt. Pop. (1904), 36,744. Although in the course of its long history it has undergone many sieges and was sacked at various epochs by the Vandals, Normans, French and Spaniards, it preserves many monuments of its ancient days. Among these is the cathedral of Notre-Dame, one of the finest and best preserved Romanesque and Gothic examples in Belgium (for plan, &c., see ARCHITECTURE: Romanesque and Gothic in Belgium). Its foundation dates from the year 1030, while the nave is Romanesque of the middle of the 12th century, with much pointed work. The transept was added in the 13th century. The first choir was burned down in 1213, but was rebuilt in 1242 at the same time as the transept, and is a superb specimen of pointed Gothic. There are five towers with spires, which give the outside an impressive appearance, and much has been done towards removing the squalid buildings that formerly concealed the cathedral. There are several old pictures of merit, and the shrine of St Eleuthère, the first bishop of Tournai in the 6th century, is a remarkable product of the silversmith's The belfry on the Grand Place was built in 1187, partly reconstructed in 1391 and finally restored and endowed with a steeple in 1852. The best view of the cathedral can the same square as the belfry is almost as ancient as Notrebe obtained from its gallery. The church of St Quentin in Dame, and the people of Tournai call it the "little cathedral.” In the church of St Brice is the tomb of Childeric discovered in 1655. Among the relics were three hundred small golden models of bees. These were removed to Paris, and when Napoleon was crowned emperor a century and a half later he chose Childeric's bees for the decoration of his coronation mantle. In this manner the bee became associated with the Napoleonic legend just as the lilies were with the Bourbons. The Pont des Trous over the Scheldt, with towers at each end, was built in 1290, and among many other interesting buildings back to the 13th century. On the there are some old houses still in occupation which date Grand Place is the fine statue of Christine de Lalaing, princess d'Epinoy, who defended Tournai against Parma in 1581. Tournai carries on a large trade in carpets (called Brussels), bonnet shapes, corsets and fancy goods generally. With regard to the carpet manufactory, it is said locally to date from the time of the Crusades, and it is presumed that the Crusaders learnt the art from the Saracens. The history of Tournai dates from the time of Julius Caesar, when it was called civitas Nerviorum or castrum Turnacum. In the reign of Augustus, Agrippa fixed the newly mixed colony of Suevi and Menapii at Tournai, which continued throughout the period of Roman occupation to be of importance. In the 5th century the Franks seized Tournai, and Merovaeus made it the capital of his dynasty. This it remained until the subdivision of the Frank monarchy among the sons of Clovis. When feudal possessions, instead of being purely personal, were vested in the families of the holder after the death of Charlemagne, Tournai was specially assigned to Baldwin of the Iron Arm by Charles |