for England, he spent his declining years defending his actions.

The fighting now ceased.

The much-troubled archbishop broke down under the strain and died. Soon thereafter Anda received direct news of peace by way of China. The ministry of Lord Bute had carelessly tossed an empire away without compensation. The treaty merely provided in effect that Manila, if captured, should be restored. A new governor-general ad interim now arrived, but considerately feigned illness and permitted Anda to receive the city from the departing British.

On his return to Spain, Anda was received with favor by the king, and later was appointed governor and captain-general of the Philippines. His administration was far from peaceful, as he seems to have been tactless and disposed to revenge himself on his enemies. After six years of strife and friction, he retired to Cavite, where he died, as one contemporary says, "much to the relief of his adversaries." He was a vigorous magistrate, who, after being deserted by the Spanish element, with the aid of native soldiers succeeded in confining the English to the vicinity of Manila.12 Posterity has recognized his services for the Philippines and a monument to his memory stands in front of Fort Santiago at the end of the Malecon Drive in the city of Manila.

Spain refused to pay the bills which had been drawn for the deferred part of the ransom money on the grounds that the authorities at Manila had no right to draw such bills, that they were induced to do so by force, and that the British, in violation of the terms of the capitulation, had given over the city to sack and plunder. The first two reasons were manifestly absurd, as ransom is never paid or agreed to be paid except under duress. Doctor von Ruville, the German author of a life of the Earl of

12 Le Roy (The American in the Philippines, I, p. 19) says that Anda thus "probably saved the Archipelago for Spain at the making of the Treaty of Paris.' In fact he had no influence on the treaty.

13 For the friar account of Anda and his work, see Zuñiga, Estadismo de Islas Filipinas (Madrid, 1893). For Anda's own statement, see B. & R., XLIX, pp. 263, 269. An English translation, with notes by Dr. Pardo de Tavera, was published at Manila in 1899.

Chatham, intimates that Spain was justified in refusing to pay the bills but advances no reason for his opinion. It was a clear case of dishonoring a draft drawn by a duly authorized agent. General Draper, abandoned by a pusillanimous ministry, published an indignant defense of his conduct, in which he showed quite conclusively that no plundering was authorized after the capitulation, although, as in other such cases, there were un'doubtedly many outrages and much destruction of property. The weight of the evidence sustains Draper's claim that he took all possible means to protect the city and that the excesses which occurred were only such as in that age were inevitable when a city was taken by storm by a body of miscellaneous troops such as he commanded.15

After the departure of the British matters soon fell into the old routine. The ravages of war were repaired as rapidly as the means available would permit, and Moro raids and Chinese uprisings became again the matters of most vital interest.

According to a contemporary,16 Torre, the new governor, was "the most detestable robber ever seen in the East or West Indies, a man without shame or trace of Christianity. All this might be tolerated if he took any care of the Indians; but he has wholly abandoned the fields of Christendom, saying that a cornucopia of the islands is given to him, and that the King, our sovereign, will abandon them or give them to the French. Thereupon he has given himself over to a libertine life, so far as his morals are concerned. He looks after nothing else than selling the offices dear and robbing the king and vassals."

After deploring the conditions, the indignant ecclesiastic exclaims, "May God bring us a Governor, may God bring us a few judges, who shall recognize and appreciate the defense of the Catholic religion and of the poor Indians."

14 Albert von Ruville, William Pitt, Earl of Chatham (London, 1907), III, p. 67.

15 For Draper's defense, see B. & R., XLIX, p. 309.

16 Bernardo Pazuengos, the Philippine provincial, to Joaquin_Mesquida, procureur-general, Madrid, June 7, 1765, B. & R., XLIX, p. 337. Due allowance must be made for the animus of the writers of such letters.

During the time of the British occupation, the Chinese were charged with plotting against the Spaniards. It would not be surprising if they looked with satisfaction upon the prospect of the British taking over the islands. The Spaniards always feared but could not do without the Chinese. When they increased in number beyond a certain point, they were either expelled from the islands or massacred, and a new start was made. When they were able, the Chinese retaliated in kind.

The visit of a number of Chinese mandarins to Manila in 1603 on what was considered a silly errand, greatly frightened the Spaniards, who imagined it to be the forerunner of an impending invasion. The active measures taken to prepare the colony for defense produced a feeling of restlessness and fear among the Chinese. The Spaniards circulated rumors that the Chinese intended to rise and prepare the way for the coming of their friends from China. The Chinese were as badly frightened as the Spaniards, and fearing that they would be massacred took measures for their defense. Two badly frightened parties easily get to fighting. The Chinese struck the first blow, but in the end they were annihilated. The number killed reached twenty-five thousand.1

"Some say," says Argensola,18 "that the number of Sangleys killed was greater, but in order that the illegality in admitting so many into the country contrary to royal prohibition might not be seen, the officials concealed or diminished the number of those that perished." Morga says, "The Captains were occupied in this finishing the enemies for twenty days, and with it the war was ended. Very few merchants were left in Manila." In 1639 there was another massacre in which twenty-two thousand were killed, and in 1662 this was repeated.19

17 Morga's Sucesos, in B. & R., XV, p. 273. For documents relating to the mandarins and the insurrection, see B. & R., XII, p. 142.

As a punishment for their actions the governor arbitrarily increased the amount the Sangleys must pay for licenses to do business and used the proceeds to strengthen the fortifications. The fiscal published a pamphlet protesting against the action as illegal. B. & R., XXXV, p. 185.

18 Argensola's Conquista, B. & R., XVI, p. 295. 19 Events in Philippines, B. & R., XXIX, p. 141.

After the British departed, the Spaniards and natives combined against the Chinese and slaughtered them without mercy. None were left alive in the provinces and only those in Manila who had become Christians or who were in the process of being converted.

The Moros have been an important factor in Philippine history. During the entire Spanish régime their presence in the southern islands was a constant menace to the colony. The injudicious activity of the early governors laid the foundation for an implacable warfare, which continued without cessation until the era of steam vessels made it possible to pursue and destroy the raiders. Spain never conquered the Moros. Her settlements in Mindanao and Jolo were merely military outposts.

It is difficult to overestimate the depressing effect of the Moro raids on the Spaniards and natives in the northern and central island. The cost of the numerous military expeditions was a serious drain on the never too well supplied treasury.20 For more than two and one-half centuries their war vintas ravaged the coasts, appearing at times even in Manila Bay. For protection the people constructed many forts and picturesque war towers along the coast. Their towns were built well inland and many people abandoned their homes near the coasts and settled in the inland valleys, where they were comparatively safe from the marauders. Churches near the coast, even in northern Luzon, were often constructed like fortifications.

Many of the expeditions against the Moros were led by the governors in person, and titles and military honors were cheaply won for inconclusive victories. Numerous treaties were made with the various sultans, but the Moro country was never really conquered until the Americans arrived and adopted other methods.

The wealth which was accumulated by the monastic orders in various ways made them important factors in the commercial life of the islands. They were the largest planters and en

20 For detailed account of numerous Moro raids compiled from various sources, see B. & R., XLI, pp. 277-324.

gaged in raising rice and all sorts of agricultural products. They loaned money and, indirectly at least, engaged in banking. The way in which the affairs of business and religion were interwoven in that curious community is well illustrated by the history of the Obras Pias, the Pious Works. About the year 1759 an enterprising governor-general who had managed, out of a small salary during a five-year term of office, to save a quarter of a million pesos, left that amount for pious purposes. This fund was thereafter from time to time added to by further donations from those who felt the need of some form of expiation, and also by some worthy, charitably inclined people. Prior to 1819 the fund was administered by a board representing the religious orders. Thereafter it was to some extent under the control of the secular government. In 1850 the government required the entire fund to be transferred to an institution which was then chartered, called the Banco-Español-Filipina, by which it was subsequently loaned for purposes which had been designated by the donors. The bank was thereafter a sort of partnership between the government and the Church. Until the Obras Pias became simply the capital of a commercial bank two-thirds of the fund had been loaned "to stimulate trade" and the other one-third reserved to cover losses. During the days of the galleon trade the most of this fund was invested in that commerce, although it was common for Spaniards who had been appointed alcaldes or governors of provinces to borrow from it sufficient money to enable them to engage in business in connection with their official duties. When the Americans took possession it was found very difficult to determine the legal status of the fund, as it was claimed by the State and by the Church.

The liberal movement which made so much progress in Spain during the Napoleonic times exerted considerable influence on the colonies. The ambitious scheme which was entertained by some of the leaders of consolidating all the Spanish possessions into a single unified empire with a legislative body sitting in the Peninsula, with representatives from all the colonies, resulted in a decree under which the Philippines were given representation