began destroying churches, public property, and particularly the private property of their native leading citizens. This revolt was against the social order which was sustained by Spanish rule.

In 1823, the government attempted to replace the SpanishAmerican and Philippine-born officers of the army with Peninsular-born Spaniards. The officers who were deprived of their positions led a revolt of native troops, and gained possession of everything within the walled city of Manila except Fort Santiago, before they were overcome.

A much more serious uprising occurred in 1841. A young Filipino priest named Apolinario who had developed some of the qualities of leadership, upon being denied the privilege of establishing a native brotherhood in honor of St. Joseph and the Virgin, launched an independent church with himself as Supreme Pontiff, and raised the standard of revolt against the friars. He succeeded in securing such a following that it was necessary to fight a severe battle before he was defeated and killed.

The importance of an outbreak of native soldiers in Cavite in 1872 was greatly increased by the way in which the authorities proceeded to suppress it. It occurred during a period of reaction from the sympathetic policy which had been tried by GovernorGeneral de la Torre. Even the Spanish Liberals had gone over to the reactionaries and were favoring a "strong" policy. Governor-General Izquierdo acted vigorously, but very unwisely. Many natives of good standing in the capital, who in the past had actively but peacefully worked for reforms, were arrested and charged with complicity, and three priests, Burgos, a Spaniard, Zamora, a Chinese mestizo, and Gomez, a Filipino, were executed.

The action of the government showed the utter incapacity of those in control for the work of either suppressing a revolt or directing the reform movement in the islands. They could conceive of no way to meet the issues other than by fiercely

destroying their opponents and all who sympathized with them. The evidence against the priests was submitted to a court-martial which sat in secret, and the record was never made public. The idea was to impress the imagination of the people by the swiftness of the punishment. The mystery with which the trial was surrounded merely caused them to believe that their friends, though innocent, had been secretly murdered on the orders of the enemies of the liberal movement.

This is the universal feeling of the present-day Filipinos. In 1877 their side of the story was told in an article in the Revue des Deux Mondes* by a Frenchman named Plauchut, who resided in Manila at the time of the trial. The official version is given by Montero y Videl, who was also a contemporary resident.5

According to the friars the Cavite insurrection had the same origin and was "the result of the same causes as those of France, Italy and Spain, or rather of Europe and America. They are all the fruit of the corruption of the intelligence and the heart. Tell man, you are free to think and to will, because reason recognizes no dependence and will follows reason, and you have put into action the principle of disorder and anarchy which so dominates society."

Soon after the execution of these priests, Rizal, who was himself soon to join the goodly army of martyrs, dedicated his political novel, El Filibusterismo, to their memory in the following language:

"The Church by refusing to degrade you has placed in doubt the crime which had been attributed to you; the government by surrounding your case with mystery and shadows, has caused the belief that there was some error committed in fatal moments; and all of the Philippines by worshipping your memory and call4 May 15, 1877.

Plauchut's version is denounced by the friars, but in an article published in the Philippine Census, I, pp. 575-579, it is approved by Dr. Pardo de Tavera. In the unpublished appeal for the intervention of the United States presented to the American Consul-General at Hong Kong in 1897 there is an account of the popular understanding of the Cavite insurrection. See Le Roy, The Americans in the Philippines, I, p. 58, note.

note.

The Reseña of Father Casimiro Herrero, quoted by Le Roy, I, p. 59,

ing you martyrs refuse to recognize your culpability. Let these pages serve as a tardy wreath of dried leaves upon your unknown tombs, and let it be understood that every one who, without clear proof, attacks your memory stains his hands in your blood."

The general reform movement was perfectly legitimate, and would have been legal had it been carried on in Spain itself. It was seeking necessary and reasonable reforms by methods which would have been proper in any free country. The violent repressive measures by which it was opposed led to an outbreak of race hatred and war. The natives had at last gained sufficient courage to assert themselves against the friars. In Malolos and in certain districts of Manila, controversies with the friars over personal tax lists were appealed to the civil authorities. This seems to have been an unprecedented proceeding. The tenants of the Colamba friar estate publicly aired their grievances against their Dominican landlords, and for their boldness a number of them appear later to have been deported by General Weyler. Demonstrations against the friars and the archbishop also took place in Manila

The queen regent was earnestly petitioned to remove the friars from the islands, but the aggressiveness and all-advised methods of the Filipinos produced a reaction against them in Spain. The church authorities there were strong enough to have the provisions relating to civil marriage and registration, things much desired by the reformers, omitted from the new civil code which was to go into effect in the Philippines in 1889.

But the policy of the government had created conditions which enabled the reformers to get a hearing before the world. After the Cavite mutiny of 1872 many prominent Filipinos were sent into exile and deportations under the discretionary power of the governor-general and on the instigation of the friars and halfcaste sycophants became thereafter very common. All classes of the people were subjected to this arbitrary method of punishOne workman was deported for being a subscriber to such an inflammatory publication as the Scientific American. The

ment.

more active and intelligent of the déportés found their way to Hong Kong, Singapore, Paris, London and Madrid, where by the late eighties they had organized a very extensive propaganda for the extension of liberal ideas and methods in the Philippines.

Most of these propagandists were superficial young men without adequate capacity or training for such work. There were, however, some effective workers among them. In 1888 Graciano Lopaz Jaena, a Vizayan from Capiz, founded in Madrid a paper called La Solidaridad, which became their organ. Among its contributors were Marcelo del Pilar, José Rizal, the Bohemian Ferdinand Blumentritt, and certain Spanish Liberals. Pilar was a lawyer, who, after publishing a Tagalog daily in Manila, was sent abroad by wealthy Filipinos to aid in conducting the propaganda. He finally became discouraged and joined those who advocated the use of force.

José Rizal, who was destined to become the Filipino national hero, was the son of common people who were tenants on the friar Colamba estate near Manila. It is commonly said that Rizal was a pure blood Tagalog, but recent investigations have shown that he, like many other successful Filipinos, had a strong infusion of Chinese blood in his veins.

Having an active mind Rizal soon exhausted the educational opportunities of Manila and with the aid of friends was enabled to continue his medical studies in Europe. After a short stay in Paris he went to Germany and studied at Heidelberg, Leipzig and Berlin, where he made many friends among scientific men.

His first political novel, Noli me Tangere, published at Berlin in 1886, when Rizal was twenty-six years old, was "the passionate cry of a Malay who felt himself the equal of any white man, had proved himself in the halls of learning, and was so received by the scholars whom he met in Germany, for a fair chance for his race." His second novel, El Filibusterismo,

Austin Craig: Lineage, Life and Labors of José Rizal, Manila, 1913. For estimates of his character and work, see articles by Sir Hugh Clifford in Blackwood's Magazine for Nov., 1902, and by Dr. Blumentritt, in the Popular Science Monthly for July, 1902.

which was published at Ghent in 1891, was a powerful appeal to his people to arouse themselves from their lethargy and prepare for the future.

Rizal consistently opposed the use of force, at least until some indefinite time in the future, when the Filipinos should have been educated and developed to a point where there would be some reasonable chance for success. The American government has encouraged the Filipinos to regard him as their great man. As President Roosevelt said: "In the Philippines the American government has tried, and is trying, to carry out exactly what the greatest genius and most revered patriot ever known in the Philippines, José Rizal, steadfastly advocated." Judged by American and European standard he was a man of ability, character and high ideals. He taught the Filipinos that only by raising themselves through education and self-restraint to a higher level of intelligence could they hope permanently to improve their condition. He certainly contemplated the independence of the islands at some future time, which in an indefinite way he set half a century away. The Liga Filipina, which he organized in 1891, was designed according to the instrument of its creation "to raise the arts and sciences," and he may have contemplated the possibility of accomplishing this laudable purpose by means which it was not then necessary to state in detail. It is certain that they had not been raised "to any great altitude under Spanish domination.”

The novels of Rizal, the newspaper La Solidaridad and other publications which gradually found their way into the islands, produced a profound impression on the minds of the more intelligent and educated Filipinos. The foundation was thus laid for the organization of the people. The Liga Filipina seems to have accomplished very little in its original form. After the exile of Rizal it disappeared and was succeeded by the secret organization known as the Katipunan. The most effective work was done through organizations which are alleged to have been Masonic Lodges. The membership of what was called the Spanish-Filipino Association of Madrid, was almost identical