of wood, with the exception of a convent. Tobolsk contains one Lutheran and thirteen Greek churches, and two convents. Connected with the lower town is a suburb inhabited by Tartars, who are a quiet and industrious race. The other residents are in a great measure descendants of exiles sent here for their crimes, or for offences against the Russian government, or sometimes on the mere caprice of despotism. The largest colony ever transported hither consisted of Swedish officers, made prisoners at the battle of Pultava, in 1709, many of whom were well-educated men. Tobolsk is a great thoroughfare for the trade of Siberia; and hither are brought all the furs collected as tribute to the government. Tobolsk is an archiepiscopal see, and has a theatre and a theological seminary. Population, 25,000. There is much difference in the climate and soil of the government of Tobolsk. The northern half is extremely cold, and unfit for cultivation, and even the heat of summer is soon interrupted by the icy winds from the sea. The wealth of this region consists of furs, fish and game. The reindeer is the most important domestic animal. The southern and western parts are more mild, although the winters are severe, and have a fruitful soil, yielding corn and flax in abundance, and furnishing rich pastures for large flocks of sheep, and herds of cattle and horses. Besides Russians, there are numerous Tartar tribes, with Samoiedes, Ostiacs, &c. among the inhabitants. TOCAT, or TOKAT; a city of Asiatic Turkey, in the pachalic of Sivas, anciently a city of Pontus, called Berisa; lon. 36° 30 E.; lat. 39° 35′ N.; population, 100,000, chiefly Turks. It is almost surrounded with mountains, which afford quarries of marble, and is well supplied with water from innumerable springs. It is the residence of a cadi, a waywode, and an aga. The Armenians have seven churches, the Greeks one. Tocat may be considered as the centre of an extensive inland trade from all parts of Asia Minor. The caravans from Diarbekir arrive in eighteen days, from Sinob in six, from Bursa in twenty, from Smyrna in twenty-seven, and proportionally less on horseback or on mules. TOGA (from tegere, to cover); the garment of wool, which, in time of peace, Roman citizens wore in public. Latterly, it was worn almost exclusively by the male sex. Under the emperors, the toga went out of fashion. As only freeborn citizens were permitted to wear the toga, it was an honorary garment, and at the same time distinguished the Romans from other nations; hence gens togata is used for Roman people. As the toga was worn only in peace (the warrior wore the sagum), the word toga is sometimes used as a metaphor for peace, or peaceful citizens. The toga was thrown over the left shoulder, and passed under the right arm, which thus remained entirely free. From the breast downwards it was sewed together, and, as the Romans had no pockets, the hollow called sinus, in front of the breast, was used to put small articles in. The variety in the color, the fineness of the wool, and the ornaments attached to it, indicated the rank of the citizen. Generally it was white (toga alba). Rich persons wore wide toga, the poor narrow ones. Candidates for office wore a pure white toga. (See Candidate.) The mourning toga was black. Persons prosecuted at law wore dirty, or old, or gray, or, in general, unsightly toga (toga sordide). If it was ornamented with a purple stripe, it was called toga pratexta. Such was worn by all superior magistrates and priests. This ornamented toga was also worn by boys and girls, the former till their seventeenth, the latter till their fourteenth year, after which the former changed it for the toga virilis, i. e. the common simple white toga, which was also called pura and libera. (See also Stola.) The triumphatores wore a toga adorned with gold and purple (toga picta, also palmata). Ald. Manutius has written on the toga, and Seckendorf has lately treated of its essential form. TOGRUL BEG. (See Caliph, vol. ii, p. 412.) TOISE. (See France, vol. v, p. 205.) TOKAY; a town of Hungary, in the county of Semplin, at the conflux of the rivers Theis and Bodrog; lon. 20° 57′ E.; lat. 48° 10′ N.; population, 2800. This town is celebrated for its wine, which is esteemed the best of the wines of Hungary. It is the product of the country around the town called the Submontine district, or Hegyallya, twenty or thirty miles in extent. The prime Tokay, or Tokay Ausbruch, as it is termed, is prepared from grapes, gathered one by one, after having become dry and sweet, like raisins, whilst hanging on the vines. A great part of the wine sold for Tokay is produced in other parts of Hungary. (See Hungarian Wines, vol. vi, p. 482.) TÖKÖLY. (See Tekeli.) TOLAND, John, was born in 1669, in Ireland, of Catholic parents. He discarded the Roman faith before he had attained the age of sixteen, and finished his education at the universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh. He then went to England, where he was introduced to some dissenting families, who enabled him to pursue his studies for two years more at Leyden. Returning to England, he began the work, published in 1696, under the title of Christianity not Mysterious, which was presented by the grand jury of Middlesex. To withdraw himself from obloquy, he visited his native country, where he was assailed with even greater violence than in England; and the Irish parliament not only voted his book to be burned by the hangman, but ordered him to be prosecuted by the attorneygeneral. He was therefore obliged to quit Ireland; and, soon after his arrival in London, he published a life of Milton, and a treatise entitled Amyntor, in which he assailed the authenticity of the received canon of Scripture. In 1699, he published a life of Denzil lord Holles, and in the following year, an edition of Harrington's Oceana. In 1718, appeared his work entitled Nazarenus, or Jewish, Gentile, and Mahometan Christianity, in which he stated his own views of primitive Christianity. This was followed (1720) by a Latin tract, called Pantheisticon, which subjected him to the charge of atheism, and by Tetradymnus, in four parts, the second of which, on the exoteric and esoteric philosophy of the ancients, is deemed one of his most learned and valuable productions. In the conclusion of this work, he professed his preference of the Christian religion, pure and unmixed, to all others. He died in 1722, in the fifty-third year of his age. His posthumous works were published in two volumes, octavo, 1726, and again in 1747, with an account of his life and writings by Des Maizeaux. TOLEDO (anciently Toletum); a city of Spain, in New Castile, capital of a province, of the same name, on the Tagus; thirty-two miles south-west of Madrid; lon. 4° 11' W.; lat. 39° 53′ N.; population, 25,000. It is the see of an archbishop, who is primate of Spain, and who had formerly a revenue of $500,000; but it was appropriated to the public in 1820. The city is situated on the sides of a steep hill, surrounded by lofty mountains, and the environs are rocky and unproductive. It contains an alcazar or Moorish palace, now an hospital, a Gothic cathedral, twenty-five churches, thirty-eight convents and monasteries, and fourteen hospitals. The streets are narrow and steep, and the houses crowded. Here was a university, founded in 1470, suppressed in 1807. The manufactures consist of woollens, linens, silk, &c. The Toledo sword blades, formerly very noted, are manu factured in a large building on the Tagus. The secret of tempering them is said to have been recovered; and they fetch a high price. Toledo is a place of great antiquity, much celebrated in the history of Spain, and was successively the seat of government under the Goths, the Moors, and the kings of Castile. TOLENTINO; a small town in the States of the Church, where a treaty of peace was concluded between general Bonaparte and the papal court, Feb. 19, 1797. (See Pius VI.) TOLERATION, in politics; a word which indicates the misconception so long entertained respecting the right of political interference in the religious belief and worship of individuals. Every man is as much entitled to liberty of opinion on religious subjects as on any other, and has a right to adopt any mode of worship that does not disturb the peace of society. This truth, plain as it seems to a reflecting man of the present day, is one which men have attained, as they have many other important truths, only by slow degrees and bitter experience; and, in fact, few governments act fully upon this principle even now. The historian finds that intolerance has been the nost deadly bane to intellectual progress. (See Religious Liberty.) It is remarkable that England, which has been peculiarly tolerant towards dissenting sects as far as concerned their religious exercises, has, at the same time, excluded them from many civil rights. No dissenter can be admitted, even at this day, into the universities of Oxford or Cambridge. TOLLENDAL. (See Lally-Tollendal.) TOMATO, or LOVE-APPLE (Solanum lycopersicum). This plant belongs to the same genus with the potato and egg-plant. It was originally brought from South America, but is now cultivated in many parts of the globe, for the sake of its large, variously shaped, scarlet or orange fruit, which many esteem a great luxury. These are used in sauces, stewing, and soups, and, when boiled and seasoned with pepper and salt, make an excellent sauce for fish, meat, &c. In warmer climates, they possess more acidity and briskness, and are therefore more grateful to the palate. The plant is a tender herbaceous annual, of rank growth, weak, decumbent, fetid, glutinous and downy: the leaves somewhat resemble those of the potato, but the flowers are yellow, and disposed in large divided bunches: the fruit is pendulous, shining, and very ornamental. The tomato is one of the most common articles in Italian cookery, and its use is, at the present time, rapidly increasing in England. It is cultivated to considerable extent near London, against walls and artificial banks, being raised on a hot-bed, and transplanted like other tender annuals. With us, it is particularly cultivated in our southern and middle states. TOMB (from the Greek word Tußos). This term includes both the grave and the monument erected over it. In many countries of antiquity, it was customary to burn the bodies of the dead, and to collect the ashes into an urn, which was deposited in a tomb. Among the Greeks, these tombs were generally constructed outside the walls of the cities, with the exception of such as were raised to the founders of the place or to heroes. In Campania, several tombs of the ancient inhabitants have been discovered, containing beautiful Grecian vases (improperly called Etruscan), of which Mr. Hamilton formed two collections, the first published by D'Ancarville, the second by Tischbein. The Campanian tombs were formed by an enclosure of cut stones, and covered with a sort of roo, of flagstones, shelving on both sides. The dead body was stretched on the ground, the feet turned towards the entrance of the sepulchre, and the head ranged against the wall, from which were suspended, by bronze nails, vases of terra cotta, whilst others of a similar kind were disposed around the body. In the plains of Etruria are also many shallow sepulchral grottoes scooped out of the living rock. These cells or sepulchres receive the daylight only through an opening placed in the middle of the vault, and which communicates with the superficies of the mountain or rock. The interior is often ornamented with paintings. The Romans designated by sepulchrum the tomb wherein the bodies or the ashes of the defunct were deposited, also the magnificent monuments (mausolea), sepulchral arches, destined to the great and the rich. Tombs where funeral rites were celebrated, yet without depositing the body, were called cenotaphs. Persons of high rank had sometimes, in their palaces, sepulchral vaults, where were deposited, in different urns, the ashes of their forefathers. The pyramid of Cestius, at Rome, constructed of Parian marble, and which contained a chamber ornamented with beautiful paintings, was the tomb of an individual surnamed Cestius, one of the septemviri epulones. After the decline of the arts, this species of architecture was much neglected, the tombs becoming simply masses of large stones, upon which were engraved rude effigies of the deceased, and inscriptions stating his age and the circumstances of his death, &c. Sometimes, for marble or stone, plates of copper were substituted, rarely enamelled, but generally engraved. The dead person is here represented as clad in the habit commonly worn by him when living; his hands are joined as in the act of prayer; and two angels are, in most instances, placed near the cushion upon which his head reposes, to indicate his admission into heaven. The revival of art brought improvements in the construction of tombs. On the splendid tomb of Julius II, Michael Angelo exercised his surpassing talent. (See Sarcophagus ; also Les Monumens de la Monarchie Française, by Montfaucon; Les Antiquités Nationales, by A. L. Millin (5 vols., folio, or 5 vols., 4to.); Sepulchral Monuments (3 vols., folio), &c. &c. TOMBECKEEE, the western branch of Mobile river, in Alabama, rises in the ridges that separate its waters and those of the Tennessee, in the northern parts of the state, and receives some of its branches from a range that diverges from the Tennessee hills, and runs south along the state of Mississippi. It receives in its progress several considerable streams from the state of Mississippi on the west side. It meanders through the Indian country and a tract purchased by French immigrants. Eighty miles above St. Stephens, it receives the Black Warrior, to which place small sea vessels ascend. In moderate stages of the water, it affords steam-boat navigation to Tuscaloosa, 320 miles from Mobile. The lands on its banks are exceedingly fertile. TOMBUCTOO. (See Timbuctoo.) TомSк; a government of Russia, in Siberia, bounded north by Yeniseisk, east by Irkutsk, south by Chinese Tartary, and west by Tobolsk; population, 352,000, square miles, 300,000. (See Siberia.) The capital, of the same name, is situated on the Tom, 540 miles east of Tobolsk ; lon. 85° 21′ E.; lat. 56° 30′ N.; population, 12,000. It contains five churches and two convents, is extremely well situated for commerce, and the inhabitants carry on a considerable trade. It lies in the road from the towns in the eastern and northern parts of Siberia, and on the great line of rivers that connect Tobolsk with the Chinese frontier; so that all caravans going to and from China pass every year through this town, besides a caravan or two going from the country of the Calmucks. Tomsk is represented as much behind Tobolsk and Irkutsk in civilization, and the inhabitants are excessively addicted to intoxication. TONE (Greek Tovos, from TV, to stretch or expand). in painting; a term used chiefly in coloring, to express the prevailing hue. Thus we say this picture is of a dull tone, of a lively tone, of a soft tone, of a clear tone, &c. To heighten the tone of a work, is to render the colors more vivid, and, in some instances, the masses more decided and the figures more striking. The word tone, in relation to chiaroscuro, expresses the degree of brightness or intensity. Tone is not precisely synonymous with tint; the latter relating rather to the mixture of colors, and the former to their effect. TONE, KEY, SCALE, SYSTEM OF TONES. Tone, in music, signifies a sound considered in the relations of height or depth; also each particular sound in our musical system. The tone, in this fundamental sense, is determined by the greater or less quickness of a uniform series of vibrations in a sonorous body. Musical tones differ from those of common speech chiefly by being more prolonged, so as to give the ear a more decided perception of their height, formation, and relations to each other. (For the production and propagation of sounds, in general, see Acoustics.) The difference of one tone from another, in respect to height or depth, forms the interval. (q. v.) But as music deals only with those which are capable of producing harmony, the whole body of sounds used in music has been brought into a system, which exhibits their different height and depth, in regular order. The compass of tones is not indefinite, because the ear is unable to perceive a tone, when the vibrations of the body producing the sound are either excessively quick or slow; yet they are not limited to a definite number. This measured series of tones is an invention of modern times, since the nature of sounds has been accurately investigated, and their relations settled by musical instruments. Man in a state of nature, or a state but little removed from this, is guided only by his feelings, in the 25 VOL. XII. production of tones, and knows nothing of a regulated arrangement; hence it is so difficult to adapt the songs of savages to our diatonic system. As instruments do not, like the human voice, produce all the various tones without particular contrivances, those who first endeavored to produce a certain tune by means of instruments, were obliged to assign to them, as it were, certain tones, and arrange these in regular order; strings were to be tuned in a certain way, for producing certain sounds; a distinct length was to be given to them, and holes were to be made at certain distances in wind instruments. The relations of tones first perceived by the ear, were undoubtedly those which were thus fixed. Thus the fable says, that Hermes strung the lyre with four strings, and tuned them in the proportion of the fourth, fifth and octave; and, probably, these tones were sufficient for the simplest accompaniment of the voice. By degrees the other tones of the octave were added. In this first system, which embraced four strings or tones, were comprehended two fourths, forming the two extreme tones, as a dea: the lowest tone was called A. Hence this system, or the division of tones according to fourths, is called tetrachord. When the tones were increased in number, it seems to have been done also by fourths; so that, e. g. to the chord d the fourth g was given, and to e (descending) the fourth b. Now g had not yet its pure fourth; but, in order not to go beyond the octave, the same was taken within the octave from g downward: this received the fourth f and thus the whole octave was formed, or a series of tones, extending from a fundamental tone to its octave, which is called the scale. The scale thus formed consisted of the tones A B C D E F Ga which had the proportions 1 8 27 3 2 81 9 1 - 9 32 4 3 128 16 2 When the fourths were divided, in different ways, into smaller intervals, the genera of tones originated, viz. 1. The enharmonic (q. v.); 2. the chromatic (q. v.); 3. the diatonic, in which whole and half degrees alone appear. The modern diatonic system is that division of tones, according to which the octave is divided into seven tones, consisting of five entire and two half degrees (also called tones; hence tone often stands for the interval of a whole tone), and in which we never proceed by smaller divisions than semitones, nor ever by two successive semitones. Now, as the ancients had not adopted the semitones c, d, f, g, into their system, and the scale or progressive series of eight tones in the octave (which, ascending from the fundamental tone, are designated by numbers, as the second, third, &c.), was probably as follows: C D E F G Ab B c, since the seventh degree had a double tone, small and great B (the latter of which was afterwards changed, by mistake, into H, in the German notation), they thus adopted two chief classes or modes of sounds, the sharp and the flat. (These terms are at present used also in another sense, as will appear below.) If on the double B the higher tone (now h) was taken, the song was called cantus durus; if the lower one was taken, the cantus mollis was produced. Now, as every one of the seven tones of the octave may be taken as the fundamental tone or tonic (q. v.), and thus the semitones of the diatonic system may assume constantly a different situation, seven different keys originate. The ancient church singers, who were not allowed to go beyond the limits of an octave, were enabled, by sometimes ascending from the tonic to the fifth and eighth, sometimes from the fifth of the tonic (the dominant) to the eighth and twelfth, to obtain a duplication of their modes, viz. the authentic and the plagal. If each tone of their system had have been in the whole fourteen keys, viz. had its pure fifth and fourth, there would seven authentic and seven plagal; but fourth, the former could only be plagal, as the H had no fifth, and the F no the latter only authentic; hence there were but twelve, viz. six authentic and six plagal keys in the ancient church music Every one of these keys, also called tones in ecclesiastical music, had its proper Greek name, contained in the following table: There yet remain a number of choral melodies in these keys. According to the ancient diatonic system, no tone, with the exception of b, could be enlarged. The feeling of this imperfection, and the want of transposition, gave rise to the invention of new semitones between the whole tones; hence the octave was divided into twelve degrees or semitones, so that, with the repetition of the fundamental tone, it received thirteen degrees and strings. If, now, to every string of the instrument its pure third (both lesser and greater), pure fourth and fifth had been given, many more intermediate tones would have been produced, and, by the use of quartertones, the practice of music would have been rendered infinitely difficult. The thirteen tones and chords, therefore, were retained, so that each of the twelve tones of the octave may be made the fundamental tone of the sharp or flat key, yet not so that all the intervals are given per a Eolian Hypo-Æolian Ionian Hypo-Ionian Key. fectly pure, but sometimes one, sometimes another tone is made a little sharper or flatter. This is called the temperament of the system of tones. In Sulzer's work it is defined as a small deviation, judiciously made from perfect correctness in an interval, in order to render it more useful in connexion with others. He also defines it, more particularly, as the arrangement of a whole system of tones, in such a manner that some tones lose a little of their perfection, so that they may serve in different keys, and all remain in the highest attainable harmony. The object of temperament is that each of the twelve tones of the system may be used as a fundamental tone in the flat and sharp keys, without increasing the number of strings, that the octave may be perfect, and the fifth not fall much short of being perfect. The even temperament is that in which all the twelve halftones or intervals of the system are meas |
