sions of the two end sections. The fol- two in this case gives 1116.5 cubic yards, lowing example will serve to illustrate the different methods mentioned. The easiest way to calculate the area of a cross section, whose dimensions are given, as in Figs. 4, 5 and 6, Plate I., is to add together twice the center depth Fig. 4. which agrees almost exactly with that obtained by the prismoidal formulathis merely accidental, owing, perhaps, to the similarity of the sections. On uneven ground cross sections ought not to be taken far enough apart to make certained by subtracting surface and formation levels, the one from the other. At each change of gradient, the vertical lines should be in red and the height of formation level written in the same color, but with larger figures than at the intermediate stations. Where side ditches occur they should be indicated by blue lines at the level of their bottoms, and the center depth of cutting should be marked in blue figures on the black vertical lines. At the bottom of the profile should be shown, in blue, the curves in the line, with the stations where they begin and end, as well as their degrees of curvature; and at the top should be indicated the quality of the timber and ground, stream and road crossings, culverts, etc. In preparing plans, all existing objects, as roads, buildings, fences, etc., should be drawn in black lines; water should be indicated by a blue tint; and works to be construc ted, as deviations of roads and streams, also the center line of the railway and the limits of land required for railway purposes should be shown in red lines. according to what is to be written in them, should contain the following quantities (with others if need be), though not necessarily in the exact order here given: Stations from and to, clearing, close cutting, grubbing, line cutting, side ditches, borrow pits, off-takes, catchwater drains, rip-raps, masonry, stone drains, pole drains, piles, lumber, ties, timber and totals. The divisions, line cutting, side ditches, and off-takes should each be subdivided into three columns for earth, loose rock, and solid rock, borrow pits and catch-water drains into two each, for earth and loose rock; piles into two, for amount delivered and amount driven, and the timber into as many as there are different sizes used on the work. Grubbing, close cutting and clearing are measured by the acre; earth, loose rock, solid rock, rip-raps and masonry by the cubic yard; stone drains, pole drains, piles and timber by the linear foot; ties by number, and lumber by board measure. Before making out the first return sheet, the line should be divided into groups so that the cuts and The section book should be filled up fills will come in separate divisions. For so that it will form a complete and accu- instance, if the chainage of one end of rate record of all the longitudinal and a cutting were 1628+43 and the begintransverse measurements and levels. In ning of the next were 1640+64, the dithe upper portion of each page should vision, which would be for a fill, would be entered, in the proper place, the be made from the first mentioned chainchainage to every station and intermedi- age to the last, and the quantities reate point on the center line, each change corded would appear in the columns of gradient, with its rate of inclination, marked side ditches, off-takes and perthe height of surface as well as forma- haps borrow pits. If the chainage at tion level at each station and intermedi- the end of second cutting were 1648+ ate point, and the corresponding depth 20, the division would include all beof cutting or filling. The lower part of tween station 1640+64 and that station, the page should have every cross section and the quantities recorded would apregularly entered, giving the distances pear in the columns of line cutting and on each side of the center line, and the catch-water drains. When some of the height above or depth below formation divisions would thus be rendered too level; the slope stakes should also be long for convenience in keeping the acdesignated. Tables of bench marks and counts, it will be necessary to subdivide reference hubs should be made at the them, taking, if practicable, the chainbeginning of the section book. Cross age of some natural or artificial feature sections are plotted on paper ruled for of the ground, such as a stream, or a culthe purpose into squares, each square vert opening as the point of division. representing one foot; their dimensions The column for totals should be divided and areas should be marked thereon. into three parts, for earth, loose rock, The return sheets, which are large, and solid rock. It is filled by adding up should be ruled horizontally and verti- the quantities of each kind of material cally, and on them should be kept an in each horizontal line, and entering the account up to date of all material moved sum on that line in its proper place. Afor used on the section. The vertical ter all the columns are filled, add them columns, which are of varying width! up vertically and place the sums so ob good clean gravel, free from earth, clay, loam, or loamy sand; no large stones should be allowed, the maximum size of gravel being not greater than three inches in diameter. tained on a horizontal line below the col- should be placed on the road bed but umns, each in its proper place; then adding the total amounts of earth, loose rock and solid rock in this horizontal line (excluding those under the total columns), the amounts so obtained should equal those found by casting up the total columns. To find for what the contractor is to be paid, subtract from each of the totals the totals taken from the last return sheet. In this way can be readily seen by simply examining the return sheet, exactly what amount of work has been done and its distribution along the line. Many of the directions here given for the manner of doing the office work are taken with very little change from the instructions given to the staff on the Canadian Pacific Railway; but as the officers of that road have devoted a great deal of attention to that subject, I think you will find their methods to be as good as those used on any of the railways on this side of the border. After the grading has been completed and the ties have been distributed, the engineer re-locates the line on the grade very exactly, using a thin picket and driving thin stakes (lathes turned edgeways will do) at every hundred feet. He also drives very accurately grade plugs near the stations to the height of the rails. A good deal more could be said on the subject of construction," but as I mentioned in the beginning of these lectures, it is not my intention to write a complete treatise upon railroading, so I will refer you for further information to the works of Vose, Henck, Trautwine and Gillespie. However, as some of you may sometime go into contracting, I will close with a few remarks on that subject. Railroad contracts are let sometimes by the mile, but more often by the cubic yard and other dimensions. To make a successful bid it is necessary to have a very good knowledge of the country through which the line is to pass, so as to be able to estimate the cost of plant, labor, etc. The usual form of tender indicates the probable amount of each kind of material, and the bids are based on these quantities. Now, if the person bidding feels positive that any of these quantities are in excess, and any others in reduction, he can, by bidding low on the former and high on the latter, keep down the sum total of his tender, and To ballast the line the ties are laid and yet, if it be accepted, run a good chance the rails spiked to them, so that the train of making a reasonable percentage. On can be run slowly over the road for the large contracts it pays to send an expert purpose of distributing the ballast. In over the line so as to ascertain pretty unloading, the train must be kept work- definitely how to bid. Care should be ing to and fro so as to thoroughly mix taken in purchasing supplies, plant etc., the different qualities of ballast, until a for the work; a great deal of money can sufficient quantity is deposited for the be saved by knowing how and when to first lift. The track must then be raised buy. Attention should be paid to the so that there will be an average depth of transportation of supplies, getting them six inches beneath the sleepers, and the in sufficient quantity when the rates are ballast must be well beaten and packed low, so as to tide over the time when under and around them. As the raising they will have risen. It does not often proceeds the end of the lift should ex- pay to sub-let a cutting, owing to the tend over not less than three rail lengths, expense of working it; if any one can and before trains are allowed to pass make anything out of a cutting the conover the inclined portion of the track, it tractor himself ought to be able to do must be made sufficiently solid to pre- it. But in regard to ditch work it is an vent bending of the rails, or twisting entirely another affair. Men are unwillthe rail joints. A second lift is after- ing, as a general rule, to undertake such wards put on in the same manner. In wet disagreeable employment as ditching, cuttings an increased thickness of ballast unless they see a good chance of earning is often necessary. The surface of bal- big wages. A grader will take out last pits should be stripped of soil where nearly twice the quantity of material such exists, and no material whatever per diem when working for himself, as when he is paid by the day; so it is worth while for a contractor to sub-let swamp work to gangs of four or five, in which case it is well to make a written agreement with the men, binding them to do good work and to finish within a certain time. To insure the completion of the job, hold back ten per cent. of their pay until they finish everything satisfactorily. Never pay by bank measurement, for the navvies will be sure to fill up the bank with logs and stumps. A common trick of theirs, especially in winter when there is snow on the ground, is to pile about six inches of moss along the edges of the ditches so that when the measurements are made with a tape and rod, the depths will be in excess. In working wet cuttings it is often necessary to corduroy the road bed, both in the cutting itself and on the dump, to prevent the carts from sinking axle deep in the clay. If the engineer is a good-natured fellow, he will allow the ties to be used for the purpose. It does them very little harm, and saves a great deal of expense. The best way to take out loose rock is by means of sledges. They can be made very cheaply by taking two of the spreading roots of a large tree and bracing them across; no artificial joint, unless it were an expensive one, could stand the stress that comes on the pointed end of the sledge. It is often the cheapest way to take out the gullet of the cut first: in which case it is advisable to allow a slope ratio of one horizontal to four vertical, so that if rock be struck there will be no difficulty in giving it the proper slope. Contractors sometimes find it to be economical to waste the materials from cuttings where the haul is a long one and the allowance for extra haul is insufficient to cover the extra expense. Loose rock is often hauled to the mouth of a cut and there wasted, the contractor replacing it at his own expense by an equal amount of earth. Rock cuts should be kept to the full width and depth as the work progresses, for it is very expensive taking up bottom. Ties should be cut and hauled in winter. It is to the mutual interest of contractor and engineer to keep liquor sellers away from the line. In contracting, make your own measurements, not so much to keep a check on those of the engineer as to pay the workmen by, and to enable you to see the cost of all the different portions of work. It is customary for contractors to keep a store for the purpose of supplying the workmen with everything they need for the work. If not carefully watched, they are liable to overrun their account, and, as they express it, to "jump the job." When sub-letting a piece of work containing loose rock, it is better to bargain for a lump price than to pay so much for one kind of material and so much more for another, because an ignorant man is never satisfied with his measurements, in any case, and naturally counts upon a larger percentage of rock than he is likely to get. No matter how scarce workmen may be, it is always good policy to discharge a mutinous man; it keeps the rest upon their good behavior. All the men on the work should be cautioned against removing any stakes, benches, or other landmarks of the engineer. It is necessary, on a contract of any size, to keep plenty of plant on hand, especially such small articles as nails, bar iron, horseshoes, picks, shovels, irons. for carts, etc. On this point I can speak from experience; for once, when in temporary charge of a five mile contract, I had to make a journey of one hundred and forty miles, half of the distance on foot through the swamp in order to purchase a few horseshoes, nails and axle irons; and had to have them packed thirty miles over the line. They were pretty expensive by the time they reached their destination. In contracting, as in everything else, it is better to do work well in the first place. One loses in reputation more than he saves in pocket by doing scrimp work, besides, in the end, he may have to expend far more for repairs than it would have cost in the first place to have completed everything according to the terms of the contract. MM. Grimaux and Adam have recently accomplished the synthesis of citric acid from glycerine, and Kekulé announces that he has been working for the same object, but on different lines. He cannot tell at present whether he has been successful. SANITARY ADMINISTRATION IN PARIS. From "The Architect." A REPORT has been presented to the Public Works Committee of Birmingham by Mr. Till, the Borough Surveyor, describing his visit to the principal Continental towns. He says that in Paris every possible opportunity was given to him for the inspection of the municipal works. The following are Mr. Till's notes on the water supply, gas, paving, and sewage of Paris: The municipality pays nothing for water used for public service. Gas. This does not belong to the city. It is the property of a company known as the "Company for Lighting and Heating by Gas." The charge for public lamps varies with the burner used. Of these there are three sizes, consuming respectively 100, 140, and 200 liters the hour. The charge to the city is, taking these in the same order, and per hundred hours, 1s. 3d., 1s. 8d. and 2s. 6d. respectively. If supplied by meter the cost is 38. 104d per 1000 cubic feet. The private consumers may agree for so much per hour per burner, or may use an approved meter. In this case the maximum price permitted by law is 78. 9d. per 1,000 cubic feet, being double what the city pays. The same applies to gas for heating or for gas engines. The illuminating power is fixed thus: Under a pressure of 3 millimeters, gas burning at the rate of 115 liters per hour shall give a light equal to the light of a Carcel lamp burning per hour 42 grammes of pure colza cil(3 millimeters, 0.12 inch). Where private consumers use meters they pay rent to the company. The city does not pay rent for meters registering gas used in lighting streets, but it does pay rent for those used in municipal buildings of all kinds. The gas company may demand monthly payment in advance. The company is not allowed to demand any other guarantee from the public. Recently a new mode of showing house numbers at night has been adopted. An upright frame in the form of a triangular prism, eight inches long, is fixed against the wall over the door. On each of the two visible sides is a plate of dark-blue glass, having the number in white letters. Inside the prism is a small gas jet. The first cost of this apparatus is £4, including fixing, and the cost of the gas about 22s. per annum. Water Supply.-Until 1860 all water was supplied by the water company (Compagnie Générale des Eaux). In the year 1860 the City Council bought up all the company's rights and assets for an annuity, during fifty years, of £46,400, payable quarterly. At the same time the said company was constituted the administrative agent of the municipality for all matters relating to the future wa ter supply. The company receives in this capacity a commission fixed thus: On all annual receipts between £144,000 and £240,000, 25 per cent.; between £240,000 and £400,000, 20 per cent.; between £400,000 and £480,000, 10 per cent.; on all over £480,000, 5 per cent. A long and careful inquiry by a special commission has just been completed, and their report presented. The main recommendation in the report is that private consumers shall have meters, and pay according to the quantity of water used. The present system of special contracts according to rent of house is found to be unsatisfactory and exceedingly wasteful. The water supplied to the city is of two qualities; the best comes from the Seine above the city, from the Vanne, the Dhuys, and from the wells, the supply from the latter being about 30 per cent. of the total daily supply. The Seine and other river water is not filtered before being delivered. The temperature of the well water is 39° F. The second quality is from the Marne and the canals. This is used for washing and watering the streets, and for industrial Streets. Of the whole city street area purposes generally, but not for cooking 73 per cent. is paved, 22 per cent. being or drinking. It is intended to largely macadamised, and 3 per cent. asphalted. increase the supply of this quality of It is intended to pave all streets where the water, mainly for sanitary purposes. traffic is heavy. The dimensions of pav |