of Our Lord Jesus Christ, save us." On the other are represented the Hearts of Jesus and Mary, and above these a cross with the inscription: "Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary, protect us." These images also are essential to the scapular (Acta S. Sedis, XXX, 748; Hilgers, "Goldenes Büchlein", 2nd ed., pp. 192 sqq.; French tr., "Livre d'or", Paris, 1911, pp. 164 sqq.).

I. Scapular of the Blessed Virgin Mary under the title of "Help of the Sick".-In the Church of St. Magdalen at Rome, belonging to the Clerks Regular of St. Camillus, a picture of the Blessed Virgin is specially venerated under the title of Help of the Sick. This picture is said to have been painted by the celebrated Dominican painter, Fra Angelico da Fiesole, and before it Pope St. Pius V is said to have prayed for the victory of the Christian fleet during the battle of Lepanto. This picture suggested to a brother of the Order of St. Camillus, Ferdinand Vicari, the idea of founding a confraternity under the invocation of the Mother of God for the poor sick. He succeeded in his plan, the confraternity being canonically erected in the above-mentioned church on 15 June, 1860. At their reception, the members are given a scapular of black woollen cloth; the portion over the breast is a copy of the above picture of the Mother of God and at her feet Sts. Joseph and Camillus, the two other patrons of the sick and of the confraternity. On the small segment at the back is sewed a little red cloth cross; although this receives separate and special blessing for the sick, it does not constitute an essential portion of the scapular. The scapular is the badge of the confraternity, which received its indulgences from Pius IX and Leo XIII in 1860 and 1883; these were last ratified by a Rescript of the Congregation of Indulgences, 21 July, 1883. (Cf. the manual of the archconfraternity, Rome, 1883; Seeberger, "Key to the Spiritual Treasures", 1897, p. 214.)

J. The Scapular of the Immaculate Heart of Mary. This scapular originated with the Sons of the Immaculate Heart of Mary in 1877, and was sanctioned and endowed with indulgences by Pius IX on 11 May of that year. The scapular was later approved by the Congregation of Rites in 1907, and its form more exactly decreed; in the same year it was assigned new indulgences. The superiorgeneral of the above congregation can communicate to other priests the faculty of blessing and investing with this scapular ("Acta Pontificia", Rome, March, 1911, appendix). The scapular is of white woollen cloth: on the portion which hangs before the breast is represented the burning heart of Mary, out of which grows a lily; the heart is encircled by a wreath of roses and pierced with a sword.

K. The Scapular of St. Michael the Archangel.While this scapular originated under Pius IX, who gave it his blessing, it was first formally approved under Leo XIII. In 1878 a confraternity in honour of St. Michael the Archangel was founded in the Church of St. Eustachius at Rome, and in the following year in the Church of Sant' Angelo in Pescheria (Sancti Angeli in foro Piscium). In 1880 Leo XIII raised it to the rank of an archconfraternity, which was expressly called the Archconfraternity of the Scapular of St. Michael. At first (1878) the confraternity received indulgences from Leo XIII for seven years; the summary of indulgences of the Pious Association of St. Michael was last approved for ever by a Decree of the Congregation of Indulgences, 28 March, 1903. The scapular is so associated with the confraternity that each member is invested with it. The formula for blessing and investing with the scapular, given in the Rituale Romanum, was first approved by the Congregation of Rites on 23 August, 1883. In outward form this scapular is different from the others, inasmuch as the two segXIII. 33

ments of cloth have the form of a small shield; of these one is made of blue and the other of black cloth, and of the bands likewise one is blue and the other black. Both portions of the scapular bear the well-known representation of the Archangel St. Michael slaying the dragon, and the inscription "Quis ut Deus" ("Libretto di aggregazione alla pia Unione di S. Michele Arcangelo in S. Angelo in Pescheria", Rome, 1910; "Acta S. Sedis", XV, 286). L. The Scapular of St. Benedict. To associate the faithful, who were not Oblates of St. Benedict, in a certain measure with the Benedictine Order, a confraternity of St. Benedict was founded in the second half of the nineteenth century, at first by the English Congregation. Reception is effected by the enrolment of the members and investment with a small blessed scapular of black cloth. One of the segments usually has a picture of St. Benedict, but no picture is necessary. The confraternity was endowed with indulgences in 1882 and 1883. (Beringer, "Die Ablässe", 13th ed., 762 sq.; French tr., "Les Indulgences", II, 3rd ed., 361).

M. The Scapular of the Mother of Good Counsel.— At the petition of the Augustinian monks this scapular was approved and endowed with indulgences by Leo XIII in a Decree of the Congregation of Rites of 19-21 December, 1893. The faculty of blessing and investing with the scapular belongs primarily to the Augustinian monks, but the General of the Augustinians communicates this privilege to other priests. The two segments of cloth must be of white wool; though the bands are usually also white, this is not essential. The segment of cloth which hangs before the breast bears the image of the Mother of Good Counsel (after the well-known picture in the Augustinian church at Genazzano) with the inscription: "Mother of Good Counsel". On the other segment the papal arms (i. e., the tiara and the keys of Peter) with the inscription: "Son, follow her counsel. Leo XIII". (Beringer, "Die Ablässe", "13th ed., pp. 429 sq.; French tr., "Les indulgences", 3rd ed., I, 567; "Acta S. Sedis", XXVI, 503).

N. The Scapular of St. Joseph.-This scapular was approved for the Diocese of Verona by a Decree of the Congregation of Rites of 8 July, 1880. On 15 April, 1898, Leo XIII granted to the General of the Capuchins the faculty of blessing and investing the faithful everywhere with this scapular. From the Diocese of St-Claude in France this scapular (at first white) was spread by the Capuchins (cf. Analecta ord. Min. Capuc., IX, 1893, pp. 161 sqq.); but it was later decreed that the shape and colour of that used in Verona should be used. Nevertheless, owing to a mistake, a slight difference crept in, and it was expressly declared later by the Congregation of Indulgences that the scapular might be lawfully retained in the form now customary among the Capuchins. In this form, the two segments of woollen cloth are of a violet colour; to these are sewed two pieces of gold-coloured material (linen, cotton, etc.) of equal size. On the gold-coloured segment before the breast is the representation of St. Joseph with the Child Jesus on his right arm and the staff of lilies in his left hand, while underneath is the inscription: "St. Joseph, patron of the Church, pray for us." On the other gold-coloured segment is represented the papal crown, the tiara, above it the dove as the symbol of the Holy Ghost, and underneath it a cross and the keys of Peter with the inscription: "Spiritus Domini ductor eius" (The Spirit of the Lord is his Guide). The bands are white. This scapular having been approved by the Congregation of Rites on 18 April, 1893, various indulgences were granted for all the faithful who wear it by a Rescript of the Congregation of Indulgences, 8 June, 1893 ("Acta S. Sedis", XXXIV, 317; Beringer, "Les indulgences", 3rd ed., I, 569 sqq.).

O. The Scapular of the Most Sacred Heart of Jesus. The constant wearing of a small picture of the Heart of Jesus was already recommended by Blessed Margaret Mary Alacoque, who herself made and distributed them. They were made of a small piece of white woollen cloth, on which was embroidered or sewed in red a picture of the Heart of Jesus. This badge was especially employed during the plague at Marseilles as a protection against the pest. During the terrors of the French Revolution it also served as a safeguard for the pious faithful. Although this badge is often called a scapular, it is not really such; consequently the conditions governing scapulars do not apply to it. It was only in 1872 that an indulgence was granted by Pius IX for the wearing of this badge (Hilgers, "Goldenes Büchlein", 2nd ed., Ratisbon, 1911, pp. 182 sqq.; "Livre d'or", Paris, 1911, pp. 155 sqq.). A real scapular of the Sacred Heart was first introduced in France in 1876, when it was approved by Decree of the Congregation of Rites and a special formula for blessing and investing with it appointed 4 April, 1900. This scapular consists of two segments of white woollen cloth, connected in the usual manner by two strings; one segment bears the usual representation of the Sacred Heart, while the other bears that of the Blessed Virgin under the title of Mother of Mercy. By a Brief of 10 July, Leo XIII granted many indulgences for the pious wearing of this scapular (Hilgers, "Livre d'or du Cœur de Jésus", Paris, 1911, pp. 158 sqq.; "Acta S. Sedis", XXXII, 630).

P. The Scapular of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary. This is very similar to the Red Scapular of the Passion. Like the Scapular of the Heart of Jesus, it was approved, at the request of the Archbishop of Marseilles, by a Decree of the Congregation of Rites, 4 April, 1900. The two segments of cloth are of white wool; one bears the image of the Heart of Jesus with the well-known emblems and also the Heart of Mary pierced with a sword, underneath being the implements of the Passion; the other segment has a small cross of red material. Indulgences were granted for the wearing of this scapular in 1901, and increased by Pius X in 1906 (Hilgers, "Livre d'or du Cœur de Jésus", 170 sqq.). The scapular owes its origin and spread to the Congregation of the Daughters of the Sacred Heart, founded at Antwerp in 1873 (Acta S. Sedis, XXXII, 633 sq.).

Q. The Scapular of St. Dominic.-On 23 November, 1903, this scapular was endowed by Pius X with an indulgence of 300 days in favour of all the faithful who wear it, as often as they devoutly kiss it. The scapular is thereby also approved. It is made of white wool, but the bands, as in the case of so many other scapulars, may be of another material. No image is prescribed for the scapular, but the scapular given in the house of the Dominican General at Rome has on one side the picture of St. Dominic kneeling before the crucifix and on the other that of B. Reginald receiving the habit from the hands of the Mother of God. The General of the Dominicans communicates to other priests the faculty of blessing and investing with the scapular ("The Booklet of the Faculties", Rome, 1909; cf. Beringer, "Die Ablässe", 432; "Les indulgences", I, 711).

R. Finally, to complete this article, we must mention the Scapular of the Holy Face. It bears on a piece of white cloth the well-known Roman picture connected with St. Veronica. This scapular is worn by the members of the Archconfraternity of the Holy Face. The members can, however, wear the picture on a medal or cross, in place of the scapular. The wearing of this picture is simply one of the pious practices of the archconfraternity, without any special indulgences (Beringer, "Les Indulgences", II, 150; Hilgers, "Manuel des Indulgences", p. 317).

ZIMMERMAN, The Origin of the Scapular in Irish Eccl. Rec.. XV (Dublin, 1904), 142-53, 206-34, 331-51; PUTZER, B. V. M. de M. Carmeli in Am. Eccl. Rec., XIV (Philadelphia, 1896), 345-52; THURSTON, Scapular Tradition and Its Defenders in Irish Eccl. Rec., XXIX (Dublin, 1911), 492; LAMBING, Sacramentals of the Catholic Church (New York, 1892); BERINGER, Die Ablasse (Paderborn, 1900), Fr. tr. (Paris, 1905); OUSTERLAU, The Significance and Use of the Scapular in Irish Eccl. Rec., X (Dublin, 1901), 311-29. JOSEPH HILGERS.

Scaramelli, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, ascetical writer, b. at Rome, 24 Nov., 1687; d. at Macerata, 11 Jan., 1752. He entered the Society of Jesus 21 Sept., 1706. He devoted himself to preaching for fifteen years, and long fulfilled the duties of the sacred ministry. He wrote the following works: (1) "Vita di Suor Maria Crocifissa Satellico Monaca francescana nel monastero di monte Nuovo", Venice, 1750; 5th ed., revised and corrected, Rome, 1819; (2) "Discernimento de' spiriti per il retto regolamento delle azione proprie ed altrui. Operetta utile specialemente ai Direttori delle anime", Venice, 1753; 7th ed., Rome, 1866; Sp. tr., Madrid, 1804; Ger. tr., Mainz, 1861; (3) "Direttorio ascetico in cui s' insegna il modo di condurre l'Anime per vie ordinarie della grazia alla perfezione christiana, indirizzato ai direttori delle Anime", Naples, 1752, still reprinted; tr. and ed. Eyre, "The Directorium Asceticum", with preface by Cardinal Manning, Dublin and London, 1870-71; new revised ed., London, 1879-81; Lat. tr., Brixen, 1770; Louvain, 1848; Ger. tr., Augsburg, 1778; Sp., Madrid, 1806; Fr., Paris, 1854; still reprinted. In this work the author devotes four treatises to the study of (a) the means and helps necessary to attain Christian perfection; (b) the obstacles which hinder us and the way to surmount them; (c) the virtues to be acquired (cardinal virtues, virtues of religion, those opposed to the capital sins); (d) the theological virtues and especially charity, which is the essence of Christian perfection. His manner of dividing his subject and his method are frankly traditional and intellectualist; his unoriginal, but, as it were, classic doctrines are proved by reason and authority, while the study of scruples at the end of the second treatise retains all its value after the researches of modern psychologists.

(4) "Il direttorio mistico indirizzato a' direttori di quelle anime che Iddio conduce per la via della contemplazione" (Venice, 1754; Lat. tr., Brixen, 1764; Louvain, 1857; Sp., Madrid, 1817; Ger., Ratisbon and Mainz, 1855-56; Fr., Paris, 1865; Polish, Warsaw, 1888; Italian abridgement in the form of dialogues by Santoni, Rome, 1776; new abridgement, Rome, 1895). This work completes the method of spiritual direction the first part of which is set forth in the preceding work. Here likewise the doctrine is intellectualist and strongly opposed to the purely sentimental forms of mysticism such as Quietism. (5) "Dottrina di S. Giovanni della Croce compress con metodo chiaro in tre brevi trattati nel primo dei quali si contiene la 'Salita del Monte', nel secondo le Notti oscure', nel terzo 'l'Esercizio di Amore' e la 'Fiamma di Amor vivo'"' (Lucca, 1860).

SOMMERVOGEL, Bib. de la comp. de Jésus (Brussels, 1896). suppl. (Brussels, 1900); Etudes religieuses, published by the Fathers of the Society of Jesus (1893), bibl., p. 321.

HENRY OLLION.

Scarampi, PIERFRANCESCo, Oratorian, papal envoy, b. of a noble and ancient family in the Duchy of Monferrato, Piedmont, 1596; d. at Rome, 14 Oct., 1656. He was destined by his parents for the military career, but during a visit to the Roman Court he felt called to the religious state. After much prayer and with the advice of his confessor, he entered the Roman Oratory of St. Philip Neri on 4 November, 1636. At the request of Fr. Luke Wadding, the agent at Rome for the Irish Confederates, Urban VIII, by Brief dated 18 April, 1643, sent Fr. Scarampi to assist

at the Supreme Council of the Confederation. At the same time the pope addressed letters to the archbishops and bishops of Ireland and also to the members of the Supreme Council, telling them that in order to show his great love and admiration for the Irish people he had decided to send to their aid Fr. Scarampi, a man of noble birth and eminent for his virtues and great administrative abilities. He told them to place full confidence in him as his representative and give him all help in the fulfilment of his duties. He was received by the Irish Catholics as an angel from heaven. Wherever he went he was met by the bishops, clergy, and nobility. He was received with military honours and firing of canon. On his arrival in Kilkenny he immediately saw that the danger that threatened the existence of the Confederation was dissension amongst its members. He made an earnest appeal to the Council to avoid all dissension and to make no compromise with the enemies of their religion and country. Richard Bellings, Secretary of the Council, addressed to Fr. Scarampi a statement of the reasons in favour of a cessation of hostilities. Fr. Scarampi immediately gave a noble answer showing why the war should be continued, and that the English desired the cessation of hostilities solely to relieve their present_necessities. The bishops and the Supreme Council thanked the pope for having sent to their aid a person of such exemplary life and excellent abilities of mind, and rejoiced at his presence amongst them. The author of "Contemporary History of Affairs in Ireland" says that Fr. Scarampi was a "verie apt and understandinge man, and was receaved with much honour. This man in a shorte time became soe learned in the petegrees of the respective Irish families of Ireland, that it proved his witt and diligence, and allsoe soe well obsearved all the proceedings of both ancient and recent Irish, that to an ince, he knewe whoe best and worst beheaved himself in the whole kingdome.

The Supreme Council decided to supplicate the pope to raise Fr. Scarampi to the dignity of archbishop and Apostolic nuncio, and the bishops of Ireland entreated him to accept the Archbishopric of Tuam, which was vacant at the time. He declined all honours and refused to walk under the canopy prepared for him in Waterford. He was present with the Confederate forces at the siege of Duncannon, and when the fort was taken on the eve of St. Patrick, he ordered a chapel to be immediately erected in honour of the saint and celebrated the first Mass. On 5 May, 1645, he was recalled to Rome by Innocent X. In taking leave of the General Assembly, he thanked all the members for their kindness to him, and again urged them to be firmly united. The President of the Assembly, after referring to all the fatigues that Fr. Scarampi had endured for the Irish cause, said "that as long as the name of the Catholic religion remained in Ireland, so long would the name of Scarampi be affectionately remembered and cherished." After receiving the Apostolic nuncio, Rinuccini, he set out on his journey to Rome. He was followed to the ship

by the bishops, clergy, and laity, many comparing his departure to that of St. Paul from Miletus. All were in tears. He was accompanied by five Irish youths destined for the priesthood, whom he wished to educate and support at his own expense at Rome. Among these youths was Oliver Plunket, the martyr Archbishop of Armagh. On his arrival at Rome he was thanked and praised by the pope for the great work he had done in Ireland. When the plague broke out in Rome in 1656, he asked to be allowed to attend the sick in the lazaretto. He caught the sickness and died. By special permission he was buried in the Basilica of SS. Nereus and Achilleus on the Appian Way, the titular church of Cardinal Baronius. In the lazaretto he wrote a most touching letter to Oliver Plunket. Benedict XIV commanded the Master of the Sacred Palace to make known to the Fathers of the Oratory that the title of Venerable was to be given to Fr. Scarampi when writing about him and on his pictures.

HARALDUS, Vita L. Waddingi (Rome, 1662); RINUCCINI, Nunziatura in Irlanda (Florence, 1844); ARINGHI, Memorie Storiche della vita del Ven. P. F. Scarampi (Rome, 1744); HAVERTY, Hist. of Ireland (Dublin, 1860); BRENAN, Eccl. Hist. of Ireland (Dublin, 1864); MEEHAN, Confederation of Kilkenny (Dublin, 1882); Rise and Fall of I. F. Monasteries (Dublin, 1877); MORAN, Spicilegium Ossoriense (Dublin, 1874); GILBERT, Contemporary Hist. of Affairs in Ireland (Dublin, 1879); BELLINGS, Hist. of the Irish Confederation (Dublin, 1882); D'ALTON, History of Ireland (London, 1911); GARDINER, History of the Civil War 1642-49 (London, 1910); MS. Life of F. Scarampi and other MSS. in Vallicellana Library, Rome; Barberini MSS. in Vatican Library; MSS. in Franciscan Library, Dublin.

GREGORY CLEARY.

Scarisbrick, EDWARD (NEVILLE). See NEVILLE, EDMUND.

Scarlatti, ALESSANDRO, b. in Sicily, either at Trapani or at Palermo, in 1659; d. at Naples 24 Oct., 1725; buried there in the musicians' chapel of the Church of Montesanto. On his tombstone he is called musices instaurator maximus, which title he deserves in that he originated the classical style of the eighteenth century, and gave a high development to concerted instrumental music. The scenes of his activity were alternately Rome and Naples. His first opera (1679), "Gli Equivoci nel Sembiante" was performed at the palace of Queen Christina of Sweden, who lived in Rome after her abdication and conversion to the Catholic Church. Five years later we find him in Naples, where he obtained the position of Maestro di capella to the Viceroy. He remained there for about eighteen years. After a short stay at Florence, he returned to Rome (1702), where he was made assistant maestro and afterwards maestro at S. Maria Maggiore. In 1708 or 1709 he returned to Naples and lived there for ten years. He lived in Rome from 1718 until 1721, thence proceeding to Naples, where he died in 1725. His fertility of production is astonishing. He wrote more than a hundred operas (of which less than half are extant). It is said that he composed two hundred Masses, which is questionable, as but few survived him; he left several Oratorios, the best of which are Agar ed Ismaele", "La Vergine addolorata", and "S. Filippo Neri"; many motets and innumerable chamber- cantatas and serenatas. Moreover he shows great capacity in his compositions for the organ, the cembalo, and other instruments. Not all his religious music is for liturgical use; but many of his compositions, although in his days the Palestrinian-style was fast declining, are written in severe and noble polyphony. We may quote here his mass for Cardinal Ottoboni (edited by Proske), his "Missa ad usum Cappella Pontificia" (recently found by Giulio Bas in the library of the Academy of S. Cecilia at Rome, and published by L. Schwann at Düsseldorf), his famous "Tu es Petrus", performed in Paris by the Roman singers at the coronation of Napoleon I (printed by Ricordi of Milan).

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His great distinction in the musical world was to have laid the foundation for the new style, afterwards brought to perfection by the most famous composers, not only of the Neapolitan school, which was in great part formed by his influence (Leo, Durante, Pergolesi), but also of Germany (Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven). Domenico Alessandro's eldest son was born at Naples 26 Oct., 1685 (in the baptismal register he is called Giuseppe Domenico), and died in 1757. The esteem in which Alessandro was held, may be seen from the fact that Domenico's godfather was the Duke of Addaloni, and his godmother the Princess of Colobrano. Domenico made himself famous by his great skill on the harpsichord. Ricordi of Milan has published his works for the clavicembalo, in six volumes, under the supervision of Alessasdro Longo (1906). The manuscripts of these are chiefly in the library of S. Marco at Venice. The compositions are not of equal merit. His genius often seems to forecast the style of the next century. For a few years (1715-1719) he was choirmaster in S. Peter's Rome; during four years (1721-1725), he was engaged at the Court of Lisbon; for twenty-five years he was at Madrid (1729-1754), but spent the last years of his life again in Naples, where he died. Of Francesco, brother of Alessandro, we know that in 1684 he became violinist in the royal chapel at Naples, that fifteen years later his oratorio, "Agnus occisus ab origine mundi", was sung in Rome, and that in 1720 he gave a concert in London, where Domenico was staying at the same time. Giuseppe Scarlatti was either grandson or nephew of Alessandro (nipote can have the two meanings). Born at Naples 1712, he died in Vienna, 1777, where he was considered a distinguished composer. He left several operas.

DENT, A. Scarlatti: His Life and Works (London, 1905); GROVE, Dictionary of Music and Musicians (London, 1880); THIBAUT, Die Reinheit der Tonkunst, 123.

A. WALTER.

Scarron, PAUL, French poet and dramatist, b. in Paris, 4 July, 1610; d. 7 October, 1660. His father was a judge and one of his uncles was Bishop of Grenoble. After graduating from the Sorbonne, he received tonsure at the age of nineteen and soon after became attached to the house of Charles de Beaumanoir, Bishop of Le Mans, whom he accompanied to Rome in 1635. A year later he was made a canon in Saint Julian's Cathedral without being in holy orders, a benefice he resigned in January, 1652, when he married Françoise d'Aubigné, later Madame de Maintenon. He was then a cripple and for the remainder of his life was confined to bed, being nursed by his young wife, whose devotion, piety, and patience were admirable. In a distorted body, he preserved the acuteness of his mind, and pursued his literary career. His comedies "Jodelet, ou le maître valet" (1645); "Les trois Dorothées" (1646); "L'héritier ridicule" (1649); "Don Japhet d'Arménie" (1652); "L'Ecolier de Salamanque" (1654); "Le gardien de soi-même" (1655); "Le marquis ridicule" (1656) contained quite a number of amusing scenes and

odd characters that Molière borrowed. He achieved a lasting reputation by his burlesque productions, "Le Typhon" (1644), and "Le Virgile travesti" (16481652), in which he displayed all the resources of his humour. The "Roman comique" (1649-1657), whose realistic presentation of customs and manners was imitated by later novelists, is not far from being a masterpiece. There is no certainty about the place where Scarron's remains were taken, but it is now believed that he was buried in the church of Saint-Gervais.

MORILLOT, Scarron et le genre burlesque (Paris, 1888): IDEM, Scarron, Etude biographique et littéraire (Paris, 1890); CHARDON, Scarron inconn (Paris, 1904); MAGNE, Scarron et son milieu (Paris, 1905). LOUIS N. DELAMARRE.

Scepticism (Gr. σKés, speculation, doubt; KÉTTEea, to scrutinize or examine carefully) may mean (1) doubt based on rational grounds, or (2) disbelief based on rational grounds (cf. Balfour, "Defence of Phil. Doubt", p. 296), or (3) a denial of the possibility of attaining truth; and in any of these senses it may extend to all spheres of human knowledge (Universal Scepticism), or to some particular spheres of the same (Mitigated Scepticism). The third is the strictly philosophical sense of the term Scepticism, which is taken, unless otherwise specified, to be universal. Scepticism is then a systematic denial of the capacity of the human intellect to know anything whatsoever with certainty. It differs from Agnosticism because the latter denies only the possibility of metaphysics and natural theology; from Positivism in that Postivism denies that we do de facto know anything beyond the laws by which phenomena are related to one another; from Atheism in that the atheist denies only the fact of God's existence, not our capacity for knowing whether He exists.

But

HISTORY OF SCEPTICISM.-The great religions of the East are for the most part essentially sceptical. They treat life as one vast illusion, destined some time or other to give place to a state of nescience, or to be absorbed in the life of the Absolute. their Scepticism is a tone of mind rather than a reasoned philosophical doctrine based upon a critical examination of the human mind or upon a study of the history of human speculation. If we wish for the latter we must seek it among the philosophies of ancient Greece. Among the Greeks the earliest form of philosophical speculation was directed towards an explanation of natural phenomena, and the contradictory theories which were soon evolved by the prolific genius of the Greek mind, inevitably led to Scepticism. Heraclitus, Parmenides, Democritus, Empedocles, Anaxagoras, though differing on other points, one and all came to the conclusion that the senses, whence they had derived the data upon which their theories were built, could not be trusted. Accordingly Protagoras and the Sophists distinguish "appearances" from "reality"; but, finding that no two philosophers could agree as to the nature of the latter, they pronounced reality unknowable. The thoroughgoing Scepticism which resulted is apparent in the three famous propositions of Gorgias: "Nothing exists" "If anything did exist it could not be known"; "If it was known, the knowledge of it would be incommunicable."

The first step towards the refutation of this Scepticism was the Socratic doctrine of the concept. There can be no science of the particular, said Socrates. Hence, before any science at all is possible, we must clear up our general notions of things and come to some agreement in regard to definitions. Plato, adopting this attitude, but still holding to the view that the senses can give only doğa (opinion) and not ToThun (true knowledge), worked out an intellectual theory of the universe. Aristotle, who followed, rejected Plato's theory, and proposed a very different one in its place, with the result that another epidemic