another is used in the place of leather, whilst several kinds are 13. LESSONS IN GREEK.-XLIII. V. Verbs whose Pure Stem is strengthened by a reduplication at the beginning. This reduplication consists in the repetition of the first consonant of the stem in union with the connecting vowel. Only in a few verbs does the reduplication remain in the formation of the tenses. To this class belongγιγνομαι (instead of γιγενομαι), I become (ΓΕΝ), aor. εγενόμην (ΓΕΝΕ-), perf. γεγενημαι, I have become, or γεγονα with a present meaning, as I am (but γεγονως χρονος, time past), fut. γενησομαι. πιπτω (instead of πιπετω), I fall, imper. πιπτε (ΠΕΤ-), fut. πεσοῦμαι, aor. 2 επεσον, perf. πεπτωκα. Here also belong several of the fourth class, as γιγνωσκω. 1. γαμεω, I marry (used of the man), perf. γεγαμηκά ; but fut. γαμώ, aor. 1 εγημα, mid. γαμουμαι, I am married (of the woman-in Lat. nubo), aor. εγημαμην, perf. pass. γεγαμημαι (Lat. in matrimonium ducor), aor. εγαμηθην, etc. 2. δοκέω, I appear (in Lat. videor, I think, fut. δόξω, aor. 1 έδοξα, perf. pass. δεδεγμαι (Lat. visus sum), aor. p. εδόχθην. 3. ξυρέω, I shear, cut the hair, mid. ξυρομαι, aor. εξυράμην, but perf. εξυρημαι. 4. ωθεω, I push, impf. εωθουν, fut. ωσω and ωθησω, aor. 1 εωσα and ωσα, perf. εωκα, mid. fut. ωσομαι, aor. εώσαμην, perf. εωσμαι, aor. pass. εωσθην. VII. Verbs which in the Present and Imperfect have the Pure Stem, but in the other Tenses have a Stem with as the Characteristic. (The e passes into η; except αχθομαι and μαχομαι.) 1. αλεξω, I ward off, fut. αλεξησω (the active is unusual in prose), mid. I ward off from myself, I defend myself, I punish, fut. αλεξησομαι, aor. ηλεξάμην (from ΑΛΕΚ). 2. αχθομαι, I am vered, fut. αχθέσομαι, aor. ηχθεσθην, fut. pass. αχθεσθήσομαι, of the same import as αχθεσομαι. 3. βοσκω, I feed, pasture (intrans.), fut. βοσκήσω, aor. 1 εβοσ4. βουλομαι, I am willing (2 pers. βουλει), fut. βουλησομαι, perf. κησα ; mid. with pass. aor. (εβοσκηθήν), I feed. βεβούλημαι, πor. εβουληθην and ηβουλήθην. 5. δεω, I lack, want (commonly as the impers., δεῖ, there is want, there is a necessity), subj. den, part. deov, inf. deiv; imperf. εδει, opt. δεοι, fut. δεήσει, aor. 1 εδεησε, perf. δεδεηκε; mid. δέομαι, I need, fut. δεησομαι, aor. εδεήθην, perf. δεδεγμαι. β. εθέλω and θελω, I am willing, wish, imperf. ηθελον and εθελον, fut. εθελησω and θελήσω, aor. 1 ηθέλησα and έθέλησα, perf. only ηθεληκα. καθίζω, I seat, I set, I seat myself, imperf. εκαθιζον, old Attie καθίζον, fut. καθιῶ, aor. 1 εκαθισα, old Attic καθίσα, perf. κεκαθίκα ; mid. I seat myself, I sit, fut. καθιζησομαι, aor. εκαθισαμην, I seated myself, I sat down; but καθέζομαι, I seat myself, I sit, imperf. εκαθεζόμην, fut. καθεδοῦμαι. 14. μαχομαι, Ι fight, contend, fut. μαχούμαι (instead of μαχεσομαι), aor. εμαχεσαμην, perf. μεμαχημαι. 15. μελλω, I think to, I am about to, I loiter; imperf. εμελλον and ημελλον, fut. μελλήσω, aor. 1 εμελλησα. 16. μελει μοι τινος (Lat. curæ mihi est aliquid), I care for (the first person, μελω, is rare), fut. μελήσει, aor. 1 εμέλησε, perf. μεμέληκε, 2 perf. μεμηλε; mid. μελομαι (commonly επιμελύμαι, and very often also επιμελούμαι, I care for), fut. επιμελήσομαι, aor. επεμελήθην, perf. επιμεμελημαι. 17. μυζω, I suck, fut. μυζήσω, etc. 18. 19. 20. 21. οζω, I smell, fut. οζήσω, aor. 1 ωζησα, perf. οδωδα (in Homer οφείλω, I am liable, I owe, I must (Lat. debeo), fut. οφειλήσω, 22. πετομαι, Ι fly, fut. πτησομαι, aor. επτόμην, πτεσθαι (not so often επταμην, -μι), perf. πεποτῆμαι. 23. χαιρω, I rejoice, fut. χαιρήσω, aor. εχαρην (-μι), perf. κεχαρηκα. With these verbs may be classed several liquid verbs, which, however, form the future and the aorist regularly: for example, μενω, I remain, perf. μεμενηκα, otherwise regular ; νεμω, I divide, fut. νεμώ, aor. 1 ενειμα, perf. νενέμηκα, mid. νεμομαι, fut. νεμοῦμαι, aor. ενειμαμην, perf. mid. or pass. νενεμημαι, aor. pass. ενεμηθην. EXERCISE 129.-GREEK-ENGLISH. 1. Οἱ στρατιωται τους πολεμίους αλεξήσονται. 2. Μη αχθεσθητε ὑπερ ὧν ἡμαρτάνετε ελεγχομενοι. 3. Ο ποιμην αιγων την αγελην εν τοις ορεσι βοσκήσει. 4. Οἱ στρατιωται επί τους πολεμίους στρατεύεσθαι εβουληθησαν. 5. Τοις στρατιωταις εν τῇ πολεμια γη των επιτηδείων δεησει. 6. Πλούσιος εστιν ουχ' ὁ πολλα κεκτημενος, αλλ' ὁ μικρων δεησόμενος. 7. Πολυδευκης ουδε θεος ηθέλησε μονος, αλλα μαλλον ἡμιθεος συν τῳ αδελφῳ γενεσθαι. 8. Οἱ βαρβαροι ύπο των Ελληνων διωχθεντες, εις τον ποταμον ειληθησαν. EXERCISE 130.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 3. The 1. The booty was divided. 2. I will divide the booty. city will punish the enemy. 4. My son, do not be vexed when reproved for thy sins. 5. Good boys are not vexed when reproved for their sins. 6. I will make an expedition against Athens. 7. They smell of perfume. 8. The soul will fly up to heaven. 9. Good men rejoice at good. 10. Our soldiers have need of provisions (necessaries). 11. A good man will care for his chil dren, and good children will care for their parents. VIII. Verbs whose Tenses are formed from different Roots, connected only in signification. 1. αίρεω, I take (e.g. a city), fut. αἱρησω, perf. ᾑρηκα, aor. 2 είλον, έλειν (ΕΛ), aor. pass. ᾑρεθην, fut. pass. αίρεθησομαι; mid. Γ choose, fut. αἱρησομαι, aor. είλομην, perf. mid. or pass. ήρημαι ; fut. 3 ῄρησομαι. 7. είλω, I press, I drive, enclose, fut. ειλησω, perf. mid. or pass. 2. ερχομαι, I go, I come (the other moods and the participles ειλημαι, aor. pass. ειληθην. 8. ΕΡΟΜΑΙ, Ι ask, aor. ηρόμην, I asked, subj. ερωμαι, opt. εροιμην, imper. ερον, ερεσθαι, ερομενος, fut. ερησομαι; the other tenses are supplied by ερωταν. 9. ερρών, Ι go forth, fut. ερρήσω, aor. 1 ηρρησα, perf. ηρρηκα. 11. εχω, I have, hold, imperf. είχον, aor. 2 εσχον, inf. σχειν, are borrowed from είμι ; accordingly ερχομαι, τω, ιθι, ιέναι, ιων); imperf. ήρχόμην, commonly aor. γειν or na, opt. κοιμι ; fut. είμι, I shall go (ήξω, I shall come), perf. εληλυθα, aor. 2 ήλθον, sabj. ελθω, opt. έλθοιμι, imper. ελθε, inf. ελθειν, part. ελθών, root ΕΛΥΘ. εσθίω, I eat, imperf. ήσθιον, fut. έδομαι, perf. εδηδοκα; (ΦΑΓ) aor. 2 έφαγον, φάγειν, perf. mid. or pass. εδηδεσμαι, aor. pass. ηδεσθην, (ΕΙΔ) aor. 2 είδον, ίδω, ίδοιμι, ιδε, ιδειν, ιδων; perf. 2 οιδα, I know. δραω, I see, I behold, imperf. έωρων, perf. έωρακα; (ΙΔ) aor. 2 ειδον, (ΟΠ) fut. οψομαι, 2 pers. οψει; mid. or pass. δραομαι, δρωμαι, perf. mid. or pass. ἑωρᾶμαι οι ωμμαι, ωψαι, etc., inf. ωφθαι; aor. mid. ειδόμην, ιδεσθαι, ιδού, also ιδού, behold, lo ! (Lat. ecce !), aor. pass. ώφθην, οφθῆναι, fut. οφθήσομαι. τρέχω, I run, (ΔΡΑΜ) fut. δραμοῦμαι, aor. 2 εδραμον, perf. δεδραμηκα, perf. pass. in compounds δεδραμημαι. 6. φέρω, I bear, (ΟΙ) fut. οισω; (ΕΝΕΓΚ), aor. 2 ηνεγκον (less often ηνεγκα), -es, -e, opt. ενεγκαιμι, -ειε, and -οιμι, -οι, inf. ενεγκεῖν, part. ενεγκών, imper. ενεγκε, -ετω, and -arw, etc., (ΕΝΕΚ.) perf. ενηνοχα, perf. mid. or pass, ενηνεγμαι (-γξαι, -γκται οι ενηνεκται), aor. mid. ηνεγκαμην, ενεγκαι, -ασθαι, -αμενος, aor. pass. ηνέχθην, ενεχθῆναι ; fut. ενεχθήσομαι, less often οισθησομαι. 7. φημι, I say, imperf. εφην, (ΕΠ) aor. 2 ειπον (more seldom ειπα), είπω, είποιμι, είπε, -ετω and -ατω, -ετον and -ατον, -ετων and -ατων, ατε (comp. προσειπε), ειπειν, είπων; from the epic pres. ειρω, fut. ερώ, perf. ειρηκα, perf. mid. or pass. ειρημαι, fut. 3 ειρησομαι. From PE aor. pass. ερρήθην, ῥηθῆς ναι, ῥηθεις, fut. pass. ῥηθησομαι. Middle (only in compounds), fut. απεροῦμαι, and aor. 1 απείπασθαι, to doubt, to deny, 23 απειπείν. EXERCISE 131.-GREEK-ENGLISH. 1. Και βραδυς ευβουλος είχε ταχυν ανδρα διωκων. 2. Οι Αθηναίοι Θεμιστοκλέα στρατηγον είλοντο εν τῷ Περσικῳ πολεμῳ. 3. Οδυσ. σευς 'Αιδου μεγα δωμα ηλθεν. 4. Ην αν μοιραν έλῃς, ταυτην φερε και μη αγανακτεί. 5. Μη πιστευε τάχιστα, πριν ατρεκεως πέρας οψει. 6. Μη τούτο βλέψῃς, ει νεώτερος λεγω, αλλ' ει φρονούντων τους λόγους ανδρών ερώ. 7. Πενθεί μετρίως τους αποθανοντας | φιλους ου γαρ τεθνηκασιν, αλλα την αυτην ὁδον, ἣν πασιν ελθεῖν εστιν ανάγκη, προεληλυθᾶσιν. EXERCISE 132.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 1. The Athenians took many soldiers. 2. The city chose Epaminondas general. 3. Themistocles was chosen general by the Athenians. 4. Come, Ο friend. 5. Ο dear friends, come hither. 6. If thou art hungry, thou wilt eat with pleasure (ήδεως). 7. The boy has eaten all he had. KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN GREEK.-XLI., XLII. EXERCISE 122.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 1. Η στρατια εξέπλευσεν. 2. Η στρατια εκπλεύσειται. 3. Ο ανεμος Βορράς εναντίος τη στρατιά πνει. 4. Ο ανέμος Βορράς εναντίος τη στρατιᾳ επνευσεν. 5. Οἱ στρατιῶται ήλπισαν θεύσεσθαι προς τας πύλας. 6. Τους ατυχείς κλαίεις. 7. Τους ατυχεις κλαύσεις. 8. Οἱ πολέμιοι φεύξούνται. 9. Παισιν όμιλων παίξει. 10. Αγαθοι παίζουσιν άμα σπουδάζοντες. 11. οἱ πολέμιοι τας των στρατιωτών τάξεις συγχευσουσιν. 12. Η πολις ύπο των πολέμιων κατακέκαυται, 13. Οἱ στρατιωται ήγουνται τους πολεμίους την πολιν κατακαύσειν. EXERCISE 123.-GREEK-ENGLISH. 1. Many evil things have befallen the soldiers in the expedition. 2. By associating with wise men thou thyself also shalt turn out wise. 3. Lycurgus banished costliness from Sparta. 4. Many who have drunk together once will become friends. 5. The drunkard is the slave of drink (lit., of having drunk). 6. I will not drink up wine. 7. May the gods punish the evil-doers. 8. The citizens outstripped the enemy in their flight to the city. 9. The hare was bitten by the dog. 10. You will not arrive at the summit without toil. 11. The women put on beautiful garments. 12. The wine was drunk up by the soldiers. 13. The friend promised to come to me. EXERCISE 124.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 1. Η γυνη ημπέσχετο καλα ματια. 2. Ή γυνη αμφέξεται καλά ἱματία. EXERCISE 125.-GREEK-ENGLISH. 1. Let not the evil man think that he will escape notice for ever. 2. If you have done justly, you will have God as your ally. 3. It is right to learn letters, and to have a learning mind. 4. The king did not perceive the plot against himself. 5. The Persians were hateful to the Greeks. 6. Philip himself used to declare that he had increased his own realm more by the aid of gold than arms. 7. The soldiers slept a short time. 8. Directly the horses smelt the camels they fled away. 9. Do not think that you have been forgotten if you have forsworn yourself to God. 10. It is good not to err against one's friends. 11. He is happy who has gained a noble friend. EXERCISE 126.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 1. Ο βασιλευς της προς ἑαυτόν επιβουλής αισθανεται. 2. Τίς ουχ ήμαρτηκεν; 3. Ουκ έστι σοφων δις εν τῳ αὐτῷ ἁμαρτάνειν. 4. Ο πονηρός τοις αγαθοις EXERCISE 127.-GREEK-ENGLISH. 1. You will find few men who are faithful companions in trouble. 2. 3. We bewail the dead. 4. Men re It is fated to all meu to die. 5. You cannot find a man member with pleasure ancient deeds. who is completely happy in every respect. 6. The noble man wishes to live honourably or die honourably. 7. If you have suf fered terrible things through your wickedness, do not at all blame the gods for what thus befalls you (lit., for your fate of these things). 8. If any one who is old prays for life, he deserves to live on into many decades of years. EXERCISE 128.-ENGLISH-GREEK. 1. Ουδένα έταιρον πιστον εν χαλεποις πράγμασιν εύρηκα. 2. Σοι μορσιμον εστιν αποθανειν. 3. Πενθώ τον εμον πατέρα του τεθνηκοτα. 4. Πενθήσουσιν τον στρατηγον τον τεθνηκότα. 5. Ήδεως των παλαι γενναίων μεμνημαι, 6. Ουδένα πάντα ολβιώτατον εύρον. 7. Βουλομαι η καλως ζην η καλώς τεθνης κέναι, 8. Πολλά πείσει για τον σον έταιρον. 9. Δυνατον εστι πολλα εξευρίσκειν, αλλ' ου παντα, 10. Ουδε οἱ σοφοι βιον άλυπον εξευρήκεσαν. HISTORIC SKETCHES.-LI. ANCIENT INDIA. THE history of India is always fascinating. It matters little whether we are studying it by the light of modern events or read its ancient history, it is impossible to help feeling that the ground is enchanted on which we tread. To an Englishman, modern India is naturally full of interest; but its ancient history is so disconnected from this country, and, indeed, from the whole of the West, that it is difficult to learn anything accurately about its state before the Christian era. Were the study merely sentimental, this could hardly be regretted. The history, however, of Eastern countries becomes every year of more inportance than ever. Research is almost daily bringing to light treasures from the East, of value to the student, which have hitherto been almost unknown. Indeed, much that is interesting and valuable in history, thought, or language can be traced to an Eastern source. The precise study of orientalism and of its language and literature has solved questions which, till late in this century, were enigmas; and has thrown a food of light upon the ancient history of the world, which was obscure and wanted many connecting links. The history of ancient India is also sobering. We are introduced to a nation cultivated, and possessing a rich literature, when Great Britain was a land of savages. We explore a country teeming with wealth, if not distributing to its utmost that wealth to the world, when this country was a land of fogs and a wilderness. What part India had in the world's history in very ancient times it is difficult to say; and there are no trustworthy records to show how it became peopled, and how it grew into a country large enough to own a special religion and a special literature; but, from what can be learnt, India in the earliest times partook of the two characteristics of all Eastern nations. Its principal people, the Hindoos, had rapidity and tenacity of thought. This curious state of intellectual conservatism is so exactly the opposite of Western ideas and ways that we cannot easily understand it. Yet it is true: what the Hindoo is to-day he was, almost without a shade of difference, two thousand years ago. Perhaps the real difference between East and West is that, in the East thought has but little influence on actions, while in the West it is the great motive power. In the ancient history of all countries we find the great influences are religion and war. If we can only trace out and understand these, we shall not have much trouble about the history of any country. The next great influence which comes with civilisation, and in some way produces it, is money. getting. This influence, being more absorbing than the other two, displaces them, and introduces new elements which make history more difficult but infinitely more interesting. First religion and war, then commerce, is the order of history in nearly every country in the world. India has this difference. that while in Western countries the love of commerce displaces to a great extent the power of religion and the desire for war, in Eastern countries it simply modifies them. So, in India, religion is to-day an absorbing infuence. In ancient times it was all-absorbing. Now, the popular religion of India is known Like the Jewish, Christian, Mahometan, and other religions, it has passed δαρθον. 9. Βραχυν χρονον κατεδαρθον. 10. Γενναίων φίλων τετυχηκα. 11. through various phases; these, being produced by popular Μανθάνω ατυχίαν φέρειν. 12. Κακον έργον πράττων ελαθεν. 13. Ελπίζονται | opinion, mark epochs in the history of the popular creed; and in them it will be quite possible, if not easy, to recognise or απεχθάνεται. 5. Πονηρος ων ον λήσεις δια τέλους. 6. Οἱ αδελφοι μανθανοντες | by the name of Brahmanism or Hindooism. μαθοντα νουν εχουσιν. 7. Οι αγαθοί αγαθών τεύξονται. 8. Οι άνδρες κατε λήσειν πονηροι οντες. peculiar in Indian religion. What seems to be true is that the Hindoo religion accepted a practice which was universal in ancient times, and adapted it to its own principles, and that the peculiarity of Hindoo nature has retained what other nations have, in the course of time, discarded. The commercial principle to which we have already drawn attention, which has in all countries dealt severe blows to religious supremacy and class distinction, has not severely affected India. Climate has, no doubt, much to do with this. The wants or necessaries of life have always been supplied in India without much trouble, and the people, having no cause for hard work or energy, have not been so susceptible to the temptations of commerce as other nations. Caste, however, still remains in its most antique form. The original distinctions were the Brahmans, or religious teachers, the warriors, the traders, and the slaves. At present the only one of these four original divisions which remains is that of the Brahmans. mark points of real historic value. Hindoo religion has been | would be incorrect to attribute this distinction to anything divided into three great periods-the Vedic, Epic, and Puranic. Before proceeding any further we must beware of one fault. In all ancient history there is a great tendency to worship the infinite and the impossible; for this, nothing but the cold-water cure of ascertained facts has any effect. Exaggeration is the most dangerous element of ancient history, and is as common in it as at the most modern of modern tea-tables. Fifty years before Christ easily become five or even fifty centuries, as the case may be. So, in early criticisms and accounts of the Hindoo writings, such as the Vedas, we find fabulous dates given to them. It is one of the most popular of current errors to suppose that Hindooism and Buddhism existed thousands of years, at all events hundreds, before "the year of our Lord." Indeed, throughout all Eastern writing this great danger is to be found and carefully avoided. Ancient accounts of battles speak of myriads slain, of towns ransacked, of cities destroyed. Translating these Eastern expressions correctly, and in a way intelligible to English ideas, the truth would most probably be that a myriad meant a hundred at most, that a town meant a few huts, and a city a moderately large town. So with the accounts of the Indian religion. Facts have been distorted and twisted so playfully by fancy that it is not easy to find out the truth. In the Vedas, or Hindoo writings, cautious writers even assign to particular parts the dates 1200, 1000, 800 B.C. The truth is that, in the first place, dates of any kind in Hindoo literature are almost unknown, and the knowledge of Sanscrit is so scanty at present that chronology is to the student only a matter for speculation. At all events, the most recent investigations soberly limit the date of the latest book of the Hindoo Bible, or Vedas, to about two hundred years before Christ. The date of the second, or Epic period, is contemporary apparently with the Christian era; while the last, or Puranic, was not known till mediæval times. The Vedas are a collection of hymns and prose writings, supposed to be inspired, and are considered to contain the revelation of God's will to man. The worship of God in nature seems the essence of these books. Two great deities, Indra and Vishnu, are proclaimed as the principal objects of adoration. This elementary creed appears to have gradually developed into the belief in a trinity consisting of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. The Vedas give rules for worship, and contain a large number of hymns and poems. The Hindoo creed had also a philosophical side which the Vedas disclose. Mysterious doctrines are spoken about, which are explained in another set of books called the Upanishads. The object of these writings is to explain how human beings are like God, and how God enters into human souls, and they lay down as a first principle that the nature of the human soul and the supreme soul are one. The Epic period is simply a development of these two forms of Brahmanism, which branch off in a more decided way into materialism and philosophy. The last period, the Puranic, is the beginning of the decline of the popular Hindoo creed. Brahma holds a secondary place in popular worship, and Vishnu and Siva, instead of receiving united adoration from the people, have each rival worshippers. So, in this period, the Hindoo religion broke up into sects which exist at the present day. Before leaving the religious history of ancient India, the Buddhists must be noticed. Buddhism has such vital force at the present day as a religion, and is so remarkable in its acts and its principles, that it should not escape notice. At a very early period the national religion of the Brahmans was opposed by a great reformer like Luther, who was called Buddha. He was the head of what may be called Indian Protestantism. The doctrines, ceremonies, and principles of Brahmanism were repudiated by him, and especially the practice of bloody sacrifices and "caste" distinctions. Buddhism must have existed at an early period, for some of the oldest rock-temples in India belong to the Buddhists. Its peculiarity is asceticism, for monasteries, nunneries, and a celibate clergy are its distinguishing features. That the Buddhists were persecuted is natural. They were driven at a very early period from India, and took refuge in Ceylon and China. Buddhism is a powerful religion. It is extensive, being professed by more than two millions of people. Its organisation is excellent, and its principles are high. To their religion is due, naturally, the character of the social life of the Hindoos. The origin of caste, which exists to the present day, can be traced back to a very remote date. It We have yet to describe how India became known to the world. India, after all, can only be considered as a collection of tribes or nations, and, whether its history is studied in modern or ancient times, this must be remembered. Even in the present day this fact is true. The various peoples which make up India differ as much amongst themselves as do the various nations in Europe. In old times, as to-day, there is no apparent likeness between the soldier-like Sikh and the idle Bengali. In the earliest times it has been supposed that India was peopled by tribes similar to those in Central Asia in the present day; that subsequently a branch of the Aryan race settled in India, and, spreading itself in every part, gradually conquered the country and obtained the best part of it, and that of this race came the Hindoos. The name of India we derive from the Greeks, who seem to have borrowed it from the Persians. At any rate, one thing is clear, that this name is unknown to the natives. Greek writers, in using it, seem hardly to have meant any definite tract of country; but they applied it to all the country which was supposed to lie beyond the Indus, with which they were only acquainted from vague accounts derived from the Persians. The Persians, who in ancient history were among the most enterprising people in the world, were the first to open up the country which was known to exist on this side of the Ganges. The monarchy of Babylon was destroyed by Persians, and Darius Hystaspes shortly after directed an expedition against the inhabitants of India. In those days emperors could only retain their power by carrying war into neighbouring countries, and enlarging their own territories by conquest. The overthrow of one kingdom meant, in a great king's hands, an attack upon another, or his own overthrow. Military power and military prowess were the only great facts in the history of the few centuries which preceded the Christian era. The world was full of decaying religions which had lost their vitality, and kept a nerveless hold on mankind by means of superstition alone. Then it was that to religious despotism succeeded military tyranny, which, rooting up the religions and the traditional history of nations, set the world into new grooves of action and thought, until the last principle of commerce, which was then only in the bud, became in turn the conqueror. Darius then sent a body of explorers to survey the Indus, under the command of Scylax. In those days, an enterprise of this kind was no ordinary matter. In the present day, exploration is a matter of money alone. A man who has the nerve and patience has only to announce his intention of exploring anything worth exploring, when he finds assistance of every kind, useful and useless, lavished upon him. Special companies convey him comfortably across the ocean; the most deadly weapons which science and art can invent are his protectors against violence; and medicines most cunningly prepared accompany him to ward off disease. A journey to India in the present day is a pleasure trip, which is eased by every comfort ingenuity can devise or luxury suggest. We may be certain that a run down the Persian Gulf or the Red Sea in a P. and O. steamer, with punkahs and cooling drinks to mitigate the severities of a tropical sun, is a very different thing from the expeditions made by Scylax or Alexander the Great. Scylax, however, having with great difficulty accomplished his errand, returned home and reported the result of his travels. So encouraging were they, that Darius immediately determined to head an army him METEOROLOGY.—I. THE earth we inhabit is, as is well known, completely sur- Owing to the very many causes that are at work, there is great difficulty in tracing out all the laws by which these phenomena are governed; and though many weather prognostics have long passed into current proverbs, it is only recently that true progress has been made in the study of the science. In early times, when the occupations of most men kept them much in the open air, and consequently exposed to all the vicissitudes of the weather, they would naturally make various observations, which would enable them to foretell to a limited extent the probable changes. These observations were handed down from generation to generation; but were far too vague and general to serve in any way as the foundation of a science. In modern times, however, various instruments have been devised for ascertaining accurately the pressure, the temperature, the humidity, and other important matters in connection with atmospheric changes; and now, by means of the barometer, thermometer, and similar instruments, constant records are being kept, in different places, of all these changes. The trades, monsoons, and other periodical winds, have already been explained in treating of Pneumatics. Near the equator, and running almost parallel to it, is a belt some 4° or 5o in breadth, known as the Region of Calms. The position of this varies with that of the sun, and the whole region is charac terised by very heavy rains and frequent thunderstorms. As the winds are mainly produced by variations in the barometric pressure, great light is often thrown on their phenomena by observing the different pressure at neighbouring places. Maps are now drawn with isobarometric lines marked on them; that is, lines passing through those places where the mean pressure is the same; and when these are carefully constructed, much may be learnt from them. The climate of most places is greatly influenced by local peculiarities, as will be more fully explained, and hence these must be taken into account. In tropical regions, however, these local influences are almost overpowered by the great and regular currents which prevail, and therefore they interfere far less than they do in more temperate climes. The investigation of the laws governing storms and their movements is one of the most important but most difficult questions in Meteorology. The great destructive power which they possess, and the extent to which they may be guarded against when expected, show the importance of this inquiry. What is most needed for this purpose is a complete set of simul taneous observations made during the prevalence of any storm; and, as observers are now stationed in different parts of Europe, these observations have frequently been obtained. The best method of examining them is to lay down on a map isobarometric lines showing the pressure during the storm in different places, since this appears to be the most important item in the inquiry. By charts of this kind it is found that the exami-centre of the storm is marked by a region of unusually low pressure, the barometer often standing considerably below 29 inches. The barometric lines, too, are usually circular or ellitical. Occasionally, these curves are very irregular, but this often arises from two or three storms which have parted from the original one, and sometimes re-unite with it. In a science like Meteorology, it is only by the careful nation of long-continued records of this kind that true progress can be made. The first thing required is to observe the phenomena accurately, and we must endeavour to explain and account for them. To start hypotheses first, and then endeavour to reconcile observations with them, is a mistake. So numerous and varied are the phenomena with which we have to deal, that it is somewhat difficult to classify them. For the sake of convenience we may divide them into aërial, aqueous, and optical phenomena. It must not, however, be supposed that these classes are indicative of fundamental differences. The chief physical properties of the air have already been referred to in our lessons on Pneumatics and Chemistry, to which, accordingly, we must refer the student. In this aerial ocean we meet with regular tides, but currents produced by other causes are far more common and important. These currents in the air are known as the winds, and they usually arise either from a change in temperature, or in the amount of watery vapour it holds in solution. The direction of the wind is always indicated by the point of the compass, from which it appears to come; and as the weather and climate of any place are greatly affected by the prevailing direction, considerable attention has been directed to the subject, and records are kept in many places showing the direction and intensity of the wind at stated times every day. From such registers it appears that in this country S.W. winds are the most prevalent, since they blow on the average 225 days out of every 1,000. We find, too, that westerly winds are more common than casterly, in the proportion of about 220 to 145. The prevailing character of any wind depends chiefly upon the countries over which it passes. With us, a west wind is usually moist and mild, having swept over the Atlantic Ocean, and thus become partly charged with vapour and warmed. So, too, in the south of Europe, especially in places where the Mediterranean is narrow, a south wind is very hot and dry, from having swept over the arid deserts of Africa. In Italy this is especially noticeable, and this wind is there distinguished as the "Sirocco." A similar wind, but more injurious in its effects, is very prevalent in the desert regions of Arabia and Syria, and is known as the "Simoom." This is frequently spoken of as poisonous. It appears, however, that it is merely a very hot, dry wind, completely charged with fine dust. Everything exposed to its influence becomes rapidly dried up; the skin is parched and dry; a general languor comes over everything; and if the traveller is unable to find a place of shelter, he not unfrequently perishes. As a storm dies out, the central depression becomes much less, and occupies a more limited area. The direction in which storms travel in Europe is usually from S.W. or W.S.W., and is more or less circular. The rate at which they move varies considerably, but is usually about eighteen or twenty miles an hour, though it has been known to be twice as great. Since the west of Ireland is some 450 miles from the east coast of England, a storm appearing in the former locality may at once be announced to eastern seaports, and thus near. twenty-four hours' notice of its approach may be gained. I order, however, to be of much service, these notices must b transmitted at frequent intervals. If only daily signals ar sent, the storm may outstrip them. In calm weather, on report would, of course, suffice, but in unsettled weather the should be much more frequent. The direction of the wind during a storm is not directl towards the point of least pressure, but usually to some point little to the right of it, so that the wind flows in a spin direction round the area of low pressure. The force at an place is usually proportional to the difference in the pressur at the places between which it is situated. In tropical regions storms are much more frequent, and a there preceded by a very sudden and remarkable fall in t barometer. During a storm which raged at Guadaloupe on ti 6th of September, 1865, the mercury fell 1-693 in. in one ho and ten minutes. This sudden fall relieves the ocean of a lar portion of its pressure, and hence the water is often raised t considerable height by the greater pressure all around. To th cause must be attributed those storm-waves which frequent accompany tropical hurricanes, and often cause a great loss of i and property. The rotating character of these storms is ve clearly seen, and when the centre is over any place, the clou in the zenith are frequently seen to be revolving rapidly. In the tropics the movements of the barometer are v regular indeed, the daily variation being most distinctly observ Any deviation from this at once indicates a disturbance of atmosphere in the locality, and affords a sure method of fo telling a storm. An isolated observer may, in fact, easily asc tain their approach, and give warning of it. In our latitudes the irregular variations of the barometer so much greater than the regular ones, that this cannot be done by a single observer. By means, however, of a staff of observers scattered over Western Europe, and able to communicate by telegraph, most storms can be predicted, and notice be sent to various ports, so as to warn sailors of their approach. A system of this kind was commenced and carried out by the late Admiral Fitzroy up to the end of 1866, and though many errors crept in at first, the majority of the warnings were correct, and the per-centage of these steadily increased. Those places on or near the west coast were, of course, unfavourably situated for receiving the warnings, since the storms usually commenced in that quarter; and, in the case of a few storms not foretold, the reason usually was that a constant watch was not kept at Valentia, in the west of Ireland. The great difficulty in this matter is not the foretelling of the storm itself, but the ascertaining in what direction it is travelling, and thus only sending the warnings to those places where it is likely to be felt. It is certainly a matter of regret that they have been discontinued, and to be hoped that they may ere long be re-established on a better footing. The amount saved in loss of shipping would much more than defray their cost. A very important point in connection with the climate of any place is the mean temperature of the air. This is ascertained by reading the temperature indicated by a thermometer every hour, and taking the mean of the twenty-four observations thus made in the day. If we take the mean temperature at any two hours of the same name, we arrive at a result differing only by a fraction of a degree. This is most accurate if we take the mean of 9 a.m. and 9 p.m., or of 10 a.m. and 10 p.m. The two former are usually chosen as being most convenient; when practicable, four equidistant observations should be made. Several years' observations must be compared to obtain the true mean. upon the mean temperature, for the range of temperature-that is the difference between the maximus and minimum readings exerts a very important influence on it. Thus, for instance, Madrid, and Mentone on the Gulf of Genoa, were observed to have the same mean temperature, viz. 72.8° during September, 1865. The climates were, however, widely different, for, in the case of the former, the means of the hottest and the coldest periods of each day were 86.2°, and 59.5° respectively. Those at the latter place were 77.6° and 68.0° only. The importance of observing this point is further shown by the fact that the rate of mortality is found to vary with the range. 99° Petersburg 1179 Moscow An insular climate usually has this range very limited in extent. The specific heat of water being very high, it varies but little in temperature through the year, and the changes that do occur in it are very gradual. The result is that in localities close to the sea, the hot winds are cooled and the cold ones warmed by passing over the water, and thus the temperature is much more uniform than in situationsfurther inland. The following list shows the difference between the extreme temperatures recorded at a few places :Rome 739 Greenwich Copenhagen 90° Paris 126° In some localities the range is even greater than any of these. By taking a long series of observations at different places, the mean temperature of each is ascertained, and lines can then be drawn on a map, passing through those places which have the same mean annual temperature. These lines are called isothermal lines. They were first noticed by Humboldt, and serve to show the general distribution of temperature. On the sea they are almost parallel, but on the land they are somewhat irregular, as elevation above the sea-level greatly influences the temperature. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Another important thing to notice is the extreme temperatures registered daring the day. These are very easily noted, as thermometers are now made which register the maximum and minimam temperature. The maximum thermometer usually employed is a mercurial Che, with a small steel index moving in the tube above the column. As the mercury expands, it drives this before it, and leaves it at the highest point attained, the mercury not attracting the steel enough to draw it back again. 110° The line showing the highest mean temperature, or, as it is usually called, the warmth equator, is almost entirely in the northern hemisphere, attaining on the eastern side of the African desert the latitude of 17° N. The mean temperature of the place is 87° or 88°. The fact of this isothermal being thus situated is owing to the great preponderance of the land in the northern hemisphere over that in the southern, the surface of the land absorbing the heat more readily than that of the sea. Fig. 1. In the minimum thermometer (Fig. 1), the tube is usually filled with spirit, and a similar index is placed in it. As the spirit contracts, it drags this index with it; but when the temperature rises again, the spirit passes it, and it is thus left ying at the point indicating the lowest temperature reached. Both these thermometers are set by bringing the index to the up of the column, either by inclining the instrument, or by means of a small magnet. They are read off and set at a regular time each day, the highest and lowest temperature being entered in a book provided for the purpose. If we take the mean of these two readings, we shall find that it differs very slightly from the mean daily temperature obtained as already explained. When daily records of temperature are kept, great care is required to ensure that the thermometers employed are correctly graduated and properly placed. Many common thermometers, when compared with a standard one, are found to be Tery inaccurate. The instrument employed should therefore be arefully verified; and most good instruments are now sent to Kew Observatory for that purpose before they are sold. To ensure accurate readings, the instrument should be shielded From the direct or reflected rays of the sun, but at the same time be exposed to a free current of air. The minimum thermoSeter should also be placed at a distance of four feet above the rface of the ground, as the readings are otherwise considerably affected by radiation from the earth. In a spirit thermometer there is frequently a tendency for some of the spirit to condense in the upper part of the tube, and thus to render all the readings too low by this amount. Many of the very low readings which are sometimes noticed by newspaper correspondents may be counted for in this way. The thermometer should therefore Le cocasionally examined and compared with another to guard gainst errors of this kind. The climate of any place, however, does not depend alone Besides the general causes which account for temperature, there are local ones which exert a great influence on that of any particular place. The most important of these are the altitude above the sea-level, the direction of the prevailing winds, and the proximity of the sea. In many places, the climate of which is remarkably salubrious, the mean temperature is often found to be scarcely at all higher than that of the surrounding district, but very often some local cause, such as a range of hills, affords & shelter from cold or injurious winds. Ventnor, in the Undercliff of the Isle of Wight, is a good illustration of this fact, and hence it is a favourite winter residence for invalids. only is it sheltered from the cold east winds, but its proximity to the sea raises its winter temperature several degrees. Not Forests likewise exert a considerable influence on climate and mean temperature. Trees, like all other bodies, become greatly heated by the sun's rays. They do not, however, acquiro their maximum temperature till a little after sunset, while the maximum temperature of the air is attained about two or three o'clock. They also change their temperature much more slowly than the air around them. Hence they make the days cooler and the nights warmer, and thus render the climate more mild, imparting to it somewhat of the insular character. They also exert a considerable influence on the evaporation from the earth, and increase the humidity of the air. In this way they serve to increase the rainfall of any district. In some places, where a large expanse of country has been cleared of most of the forests, the difference in the rainfall has been shown by the partial drying up of rivers and lakes. Not only is the influence of the mean temperature upon man distinctly seen and felt, but it also exerts a great influence on the distribution of plants, the limits to the cultivation of various trees and varieties of grain being almost coincident with some of the isothermal lines already referred to. |
